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THE SAMSON OPTION: ISRAEL'S NUCLEAR ARSENAL AND AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY |
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Notes Few books have been written specifically on Israel's nuclear arsenal. The first and most politically insightful is Israel and Nuclear Weapons, by Fuad Jabber (published for the International Institute for Strategic Studies by Chatta & Windus, London, 1971). See also Israel's Nuclear Arsenal, by Peter Pry (Westview Press, Boulder, Colo., 1984); Israeli Nuclear Deterrence, by Shai Feldman (Columbia University Press, New York, 1982), and Dimona: The Third Temple? by Mark Gaffney (Amana Books, Brattleboro, Vt., 1989). The best reference work on the status of world proliferation is compiled and written by Leonard S. Spector, of the Carnegie Endowment in Washington, who publishes periodic updates. His most recent (with Jacqueline R. Smith) is Nuclear Ambitions: The Spread of Nuclear Weapons, 1989-1990 (Westview Press, Boulder, Colo., 1990). And for the most recent Israeli view of the nuclear debate, see "Opaque Nuclear Proliferation," by Avner Cohen and Benjamin Frankel, Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. 13, No. 3. September 1990, beginning at page 14. 1. A Secret Agreement A full description of America's satellite capability and hardware, including an account of the KH-11, can be found in American Espionage and the Soviet Target, by Jeffrey Richelson (William Morrow, New York, 1987). The first journalistic report on the CIA's KK MOUNTAIN activities can be found in Dangerous Liaison, by Andrew and Leslie Cockburn (HarperCollins, New York, 1991); see Chapter 5, "Dirty Work on the Mountain." For an excellent discussion of President Jimmy Carter's troubles with the CIA's intelligence in Iran, see All Fall Down, by Gary Sick (Penguin Books, New York, 1985). There were many newspaper and magazine articles on the Geoffrey Prime spy scandal in Britain; see, for example, "The Treason of Geoffrey Prime," Economist, November 13, 1982, page 63. William Kampiles's travails similarly were fully reported. Richard Allen was first interviewed for this book on May 19, 1989, and many times thereafter. For a good account of the internal feuding in Israel over the bombing of the Iraqi reactor at Osirak, see Israel's Secret Wars, by Ian Black and Benny Morris (Grove Weidenfeld, New York, 1991), beginning at page 332. There have been many popular accounts of the raid itself; see, for example, Two Minutes over Baghdad, by Amos Perlmutter, Michael Handel, and Uri Bar-Joseph (Corgi Books, London, 1982). Also see First Strike, by Shlomo Nakdimon (Summit Books, New York, 1987, originally published by Yediot Ahronot/Eidanim, Tel Aviv, 1986). Menachem Begin's reaction to the raid can be found in the Israeli press for June 1982; see "Begin: Secret Atom Bunker Also Was Destroyed in Raid," Jerusalem Post. June 12, 1981, page 1. The cited State Department study on Mozambique is entitled "Summary of Mozambican Refugee Accounts of Principally Conflict-Related Experience in Mozambique," submitted to the State Department in April 1988 by Robert Gersony, a consultant to the Bureau for Refugee Programs. William Bader was interviewed in Washington on June 3, 1991. 2. The Scientist Not surprisingly, very little has been written about Ernst Bergmann. He is discussed in Chaim Weizmann: A Biography by Several Hands, in a chapter by R.H.S. Crossman, "The Prisoner of Rehovot," at page 333 (Atheneum, New York, 1963). See also From These Men, by Shimon Peres (Wyndham Books, New York, 1979), pages 185-201. An excellent magazine account of Bergmann's career was published in the weekly Tel Aviv Magazine of Yediot Ahronot, Israel's largest newspaper, in March 1991: "Who Forgot the Father of the Israeli Atom, and Why?" by Rani Hadar. The article, because of Israeli censorship, only hints at Bergmann's important role. The best biography (in English) of David Ben- Gurion is Ben-Gurion, by Michael Bar-Zohar (Adama Books, New York, 1977). Bar-Zohar is cited throughout the early portions of this book. The diaries of Moshe Sharett, Personal Diary, in Hebrew (Maariv, Tel Aviv, 1980) have been translated only in part. There are eight volumes in the original. Details of the early announcements of the Israeli Atomic Energy Commission can be found in Jabber and Pry. Bergmann's 1954 speech can be found in the Daily Report of the Foreign Broadcast Information Service for Tuesday, November 23, 1954, No. 227. Other details on Israel's early nuclear research program were provided by United Nations Ambassador Abba Eban in a speech on November 15, 1954; see page 335 et seq. of the official record for the General Assembly, Ninth Session. Ben-Gurion's remark about Israel being a "small spot" was cited in "The Hidden Debate," by Uri Bar-Joseph, Journal of Strategic Studies, June 1982, at page 212. Bar-Joseph's is one of many excellent scholarly articles on the Suez Crisis; see also "Israel's Relations' with the Arabs," by Avi Shlaim, Middle East journal, Spring 1983, beginning at page 180. Shlomo Aronson, an Israeli political scientist, has analyzed Israeli foreign policy in terms of its nuclear potential: see Conflict and Bargaining in the Middle East (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1978). The death of Aharon Katzir-Katchalsky was reported in the Jerusalem Post, June I, 1972, "Leading Scientist Killed," page 3. Bergmann's quote about two atomic energies can be found in "Israelis Honor Atom Scientist," by James Feron, New York Times, May 14, 1966. Herman Mark was interviewed December 14, 1990, in Austin, Texas, and by telephone many times thereafter. Abe Feinberg was initially interviewed in New York on April 20, 1989, and many times in person and on the telephone thereafter. Bergmann's cited interview in 1969 was published in part in A Tacit Alliance, an excellent doctoral study of French-Israeli military ties by Sylvia K. Crosbie (Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1974). Bertrand Goldschmidt was interviewed in Paris on November 24, 1990. More details can be found in his memoir, Atomic Rivals (Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, N.J., 1990), and his history of nuclear energy, The Atomic Complex (American Nuclear Society, La Grange Park, Ill., 1980). 3. The, French Connection The best account of France's role in the Israeli bomb is the cited Les deux bombes, by Pierre Pean (Fayard, Paris, 1981). The announcement of the Canadian- Indian reactor can be found in "Canada to Help Build Atom Research Reactor for India," by Grey Hamilton, Toronto Globe and Mail, April 30, 1956. Basic sources for the period leading up to the Suez war include the diaries of Ben-Gurion and Sharett, as well as The Eisenhower Diaries, Robert Ferrell, editor (W. W. Norton, New York, 1981), and de Gaulle's Memoirs of Hope (Simon & Schuster, New York, 1970). See also Diary of the Sinai Campaign, by Moshe Dayan (Weidenfeld & Nicholson, London, 1965), and Suez, by Hugh Thomas (Harper & Row, New York, 1966). The Bulganin threat during the Suez War can be found in contemporary newspaper accounts; especially see "Soviet Protests Canal Blockade," New York Times, November 5, 1956. The cited Peres biography is Shimon Peres, by Matti Golan (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1982). The French reactor at Marcoule is described in Mechanical Engineering Magazine, November 1959, at page 60 (no mention is made of its weapons capability, however). For the French view of the nuclear issue, see The Balance of Terror, by Pierre Gallois (Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1961), page 137 et seq. 4. First Knowledge The best account of the U-2, can be found in Mayday, by Michael R. Beschloss (Harper & Row, New York, 1986). Arthur Lundahl was interviewed in Bethesda, Maryland, on June 19, 1989, and many times by telephone after ward. Dino Brugioni was interviewed dozens of times by telephone at his home in Hartwood, Virginia, beginning on July 5, 1989. His account of the Auschwitz findings (cited in Chapter 7) can be found in "The Serendipity Effect of Aerial Reconnaissance," by Dino A. Brugioni, Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, Vol. 124, No. I, 1989. America's difficulties in locating Soviet nuclear targets before the advent of the U-2 are described by David A. Rosenberg in "The Origins of Overkill: Nuclear Weapons and American Strategy, 1945-1960," International Security, Vol. 7, No. 3 (Spring 1983), pages 3-71. Andrew Goodpaster was interviewed by telephone in Washington on January 11, 1991. 5. Internal Wars See Jabber for the generally held and mistaken view of the early resignations of the Israeli Atomic Energy Commission, as well as Every Spy a Prince, by Dan Raviv and Yossi Melman (Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1990), page 69. Raviv and Melman, however, mention Binyamin Blumberg's important and early role in the Israeli bomb on the same page. Black and Morris also deal with Blumberg's little-known history. Ian Smart was interviewed in New York on July 23, 1989. He was then living in London. Thomas Graham was interviewed in Washington on May IS, 1989; his cited article is "The Economics of Producing Nuclear Weapons in Nth Countries," by Thomas W. Graham, in Strategies for Managing Nuclear Proliferation, edited by D. L. Brito, M. D. Intriligator, and A. E. Wick (Lexington Books, Lexington, Mass., 1983). Peres's boast about raising money can be found in the previously cited weekend magazine of Yediot Abronot. 6. Going Public John Finney was interviewed in Washington on April 18, 1989. The cited article was "U.S. Hears Israel Moves Toward A-Bomb Potential," New York Times, December 19. 1960, page I. McCone's resignation and TV appearance were also on page I that day: "McCone to Resign as AEC Member." The cited Buchwald column (reprinted in part, with his permission) was published January 10, 1961, in the New York Herald-Tribune, "The Smashing Tailors of Beersheba." Walter Elder was interviewed in his suburban Virginia home on August 28, 1989, and many times by telephone thereafter. Armand Meyer was interviewed in Rosslyn, Virginia, on June 15. 1990. The cited Herter statement can be found in The Alliance, by Richard J. Barnet (Simon & Schuster, New York, 1983), page 179. Philip Farley was interviewed in Palo Alto, California, on October 30, 1989. Chapman Pincher was interviewed by telephone on March 28, 1991; the cited article is "Israel May Be Making an A-Bomb," London Daily Express, December 16, 1960, page 2. Myron Kratzer was interviewed in Washington in June 1989, and by telephone thereafter. The cited Freedom of Information documents are in the author's possession. Christian Herter's testimony to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee can be found in Vol. XIII, Part I, of the published Executive Sessions of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee (Historical Series), made public April 1984. 7. Dual Loyalty The Strauss biography is No Sacrifice Too Great, by Richard Pfau (University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, 19B+) There are many accounts of Oppenheimer's travails before the AEC; see The Oppenheimer Hearing, by John Major (Batsford, London, 1971). Strauss's test ban testimony was cited in The Glory and the Dream, by William Manchester (Little, Brown, Boston, 1973), page 985. Carl Kaysen was interviewed in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on November 11, 1989, and thereafter by telephone. William L. Strauss was interviewed by telephone on April 3, 1991; Alice Strauss was interviewed by telephone on May 6, 1991. Algie Wells was interviewed by telephone on March 29, 1991. 8. A Presidential Struggle Abe Feinberg's role in presidential politics and fund-raising was initially reported in an unpublished dissertation, "Ethnic Linkage and Foreign Policy," by Etta Zablocki, Columbia University, 1983 (available through UMI dissertation information service, Ann Arbor, Mich.). Similar material was published in The Lobby, by Edward Tivnan (Simon & Schuster, New York, 1987), and Truman and Israel, by Michael J. Cohen (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1990). None of the accounts discusses Feinberg's relationship with the Israeli nuclear program. Clark Clifford was interviewed about Feinberg on April 8, 1991. Abraham Ribicoff was interviewed by telephone on November 5, 1990. Ben Bradlee and Arthur Schlesinger discussed President Kennedy on April 9, 1991. Kennedy's comments about campaign financing were made on October 4, 1961, according to Facts on File. A good account of Kennedy's efforts on campaign financing can be found in Congressional Quarterly's "Congress and the Nation 1965-1968," Vol. II, "Political Finances," p. 444. Myer Feldman was interviewed in Washington on June 13, 1989, and many times thereafter. Jerome Weisner was interviewed by telephone on June 17, 1991. Robert Komer was interviewed in Washington on April 3. 1989, and two times thereafter. William Crawford was interviewed in suburban Maryland on May 3, 1990. Israel's diversion of the Norwegian heavy water has been thoroughly researched and reported by Gary Milhollin, director of the Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control in Washington. Milhollin was the first to expose the issue, and has been more than generous in sharing his files and research. The explanation for the lack of a Shavit I can he found in "Publicity on Rocket Explained in Israel," New York Times, June 10, 1961. Paul Nitze was interviewed on October 9.199°. Robert McNamara's cryptic conversation with the author took place on January II, 1991. The more logical account of why the Israeli Atomic Energy Commission fell apart in the late 1950s was supplied by Yuval Neeman, minister of energy, in a conversation in Washington on April 15, 1991. Neeman would not discuss any current issues relating to Israel's nuclear capabilities. Floyd Culler was interviewed on November 30, 1989, in Palo Alto, California, and later by telephone. Phillips Talbot was interviewed briefly by telephone on April 8, 1991. 9. Years of Pressure The declassified memorandum of the Kennedy talk with Golda Meir is available from the JFK Library in Boston and also can be found in President Kennedy's Policy Toward the Arab States and Israel, by Mordechai Gazit (Shiloah Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies, Tel Aviv University, 1983), page 108. The Gazit book provides invaluable background on Israeli policy in the Kennedy period. Much detail about Ben-Gurion's attitude and the history of that period, it should be noted again, comes from Michael Bar-Zohar's abridged biography. Daniel Ellsberg was interviewed in Washington on March 20, 1989. The most complete summary of Johnson's early ties to American Jews can be found in "Prologue," by Louis S. Gomolak, unpublished doctoral thesis (University of Texas, 1989), available through UMI dissertation information service. 10. The Samson Option Excellent work on this period has been done by Shlomo Aronson, the Israeli political scientist and advocate of the deterrent value of Israel's nuclear arsenal. Moshe Dayan's Maariv article was summarized April 13, 1963, in the New York Times, "Israelis Warned on Arms Lag." Ben-Gurion's letter to the Times was published November 20, 196J. Theodore Taylor's paper was entitled "Can Nuclear Weapons Be Developed Without Full Testing?" It was a lecture given on December 11, 1988, at a workshop on Verification of Nuclear and Conventional Arms Reductions, Robin Brook Centre, St. Bartholomew's Medical College, London. The text of the lecture, with additional material, is reproduced in Theodore B. Taylor, "Nuclear Tests and Nuclear Weapons," in Benjamin Frankel, ed., Opaque Nuclear Proliferation: Methodological and Policy Implications (Frank Cass, London, 1991), pages 175-90. The cited White House papers are on file at the Lyndon B. Johnson Library in Austin. A number of books are useful on the background of international control of nuclear energy. See The International Atomic Energy Agency and World Nuclear Order, by Lawrence Scheinman (Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C., 1987) and Nuclear Power Issues and Choices, chaired by Spurgeon M. Keeny, Jr. (Ballinger Publishing Company, Cambridge, Mass., 1977). For a discussion of the Sam son and Masada psychologies, see A Psycho-History of Zionism, by Jay Y. Gonen (Mason J. Charter, New York, 1975), Chapter 13. The cited Podhoretz article is entitled "The Abandonment of Israel" and appeared in the July 1976 issue of Commentary. The New York Times article on Bergmann appeared on June 14, 1966, and is cited above. 11. Playing the Game The most comprehensive book on James Angleton is Cold Warrior, by Tom Mangold (Simon & Schuster, New York, (991). Mangold shows that Angleton always had the support of Richard Helms in his paranoid treatment of defectors. Samuel Halpern was interviewed in his suburban Virginia home on April 19, 199I. The CIA's estimate on the "Consequences of Israeli Acquisition of Nuclear Capability" can be found in the Mordechai Gazit book cited above. For an excellent account of the making of the Chinese nuclear bomb, see China Builds the Bomb, by John Wilson Lewis and Xue Litai (Stanford University Press, Stanford, Calif., 1<)88). The material cited from Glenn Seaborg's Stemming the Tide (Lexington Books, Lexington, Mass., 1987) can be found in Chapter 13, "A Tale of Two Committees." The quote about India from McGeorge Bundy's Danger and Survival (Random House, New York, (988) can he found on page 585/ Seaborg describes the debate over the Gilpatric panel. Robert Kennedy's cited Senate speech was delivered on June 23, 1965; see the Congressional Record for that day at page 14566. The John Finney story was "Israel Permits U.S. to Inspect Atomic Reactor," New York Times, March 14, 1965, page 1. 12. The Ambassador Walworth Barbour is rarely mentioned in any of the contemporary books about Israel or Middle East policies. One of the few to single out Barbour was Abba Eban, in his Autobiography (Random House, New York, 1977); Eban correctly described him as "corpulent, good-natured and brilliantly incisive," at page 297. Edward Dale was interviewed the first of many times at his home in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, on September 7, 1990. John Hadden was interviewed in Brunswick, Maine, on June 8, 1989, and many times thereafter by telephone. Peter Jessup was interviewed in Washington on March 20, 1989, and later by telephone. Carmelo Alba was interviewed in suburban Virginia on April 10, 1991. Herman Pollack was interviewed by telephone on May 11, 1991. Max Ben was initially interviewed by telephone from his home in St. Petersburg, Florida, on May 22, 1991, and thereafter. The late Robert Webber's widow, Clytie Webber, discussed her husband with the author on May 21, 1991. Eugene Braderman of Washington was interviewed twice by telephone about his 1960s visit to Israel, on October I, 1990, and again the following April. The late Joseph Zurhellen was interviewed in New York on September 8, 1989. Arnold Kramish told of his meeting with Barbour in an interview on June 5, 1990. The cited Golda Meir comment about Barbour can be found in "Quiet Envoy to Israel," New York Times, April 3, 1971, one of the few times Barbour's name appeared in print while he was ambassador. 13. An Israeli Decision Yigal Allon's boastful remarks made page I in the New York Times for December 11, 1967, "Allon Hints Israel Has Missiles," Moshe Dayan's Soviet warning was published in Frankfurter Allgemeine on July 7. 1967. Walter Rostow was interviewed at the LBJ Library in Austin, Texas, on October 14, 1990. Kissinger's nuclear remarks can be found on page 397 (footnotes) in the Aronson book cited above. The cited Time magazine article is "How Israel Got the Bomb," April 12, 1976. The Plumbat Affair was written by Elaine Davenport, Paul Eddy, and Peter Gillman (J. B. Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1978). 14. A Presidential Gift Dan Rather's question for the President came during a December 19, 1967 news conference. The documents cited herein were released to the author under the Freedom of Information Act; they are available from the LBJ Library. James Critchfield was interviewed April 13, 1989. and later by telephone. Harry McPherson was interviewed by telephone on May 8, 1991. Carl Duckett was interviewed at his home in Hutchins, Virginia, on June 27, 1991. There have been many published accounts of Richard Helms's aborted attempt to brief Johnson on the Israeli bomb; see "LBJ Was Told in '68 That Israel Had Bomb," by John J. Fialka, Washington Star, March 1, 1978, page 1. Paul Warnke was interviewed March 23, 1989, and later by telephone. Yitzhak Rabin's account can be found at pages 141 and 142 of The Rabin Memoirs (Little, Brown, Boston, 1979); Warnke somehow became Vornike in the Rabin book, however. The late Harry Schwartz was interviewed July 14, 1989, at his home near Easton, Maryland. The Rothschild pipeline deal was initially reported July 18, 1959, in the New York Times, "Rothschild Investment Group To Operate Pipeline in Israel." Bill Moyers was interviewed by telephone on February 18, 1991. 15. The Tunnel The best guide to the production of nuclear weapons is U.S. Nuclear Warhead Production, Vol. 2, by Thomas B. Cochran, William M. Arkin, Robert S. Norris, and Milton M. Hoenig (Ballinger, Cambridge, Mass., 1987). The essential Vanunu story was "Revealed: The Secrets of Israel's Nuclear Arsenal," London Sunday Times, October 5, 1986. The story was written by the newspaper's "Insight" team, led by Peter Hounam. For an extensive analysis of Vanunu, with additional information from his interviews with the Sunday Times, see The Invisible Bomb, by Frank Barnaby (I. B. Tauris, London, 1989). For details on Vanunu's life and his travails while being interviewed by the Sunday Times in London, see Triple Cross, by Louis Toscano (Birch Lane Press, New York, 1990). The use of robotics in the nuclear weapons production process is briefly described in "Machining Hemispherical Shells," in the 1988 edition of Research Highlights, published by the Los Alamos National Laboratory. George Cowan was interviewed by telephone from New Mexico on September 9, 1990; Hans Bethe was interviewed at his office at the California Institute of Technology on January 21, 1991. 16. Prelude to War Nixon's comments about the NPT were made September 8, 1968, in Pittsburg and September 11, 1968, in Charlotte, North Carolina. NSDM 6, apparently still classified, is in the author's possession. Morton Halperin was interviewed in Washington on June 10, 1991. Charles Van Doren was interviewed in Washington on May 29, 1989. NSDM 32 also is in the author's possession. Hedrick Smith's New York Times story was "U.S. Assumes the Israelis Have A-Bomb or Its Parts," July 19, 1970, page I. Smith was interviewed about the story on May 9, 1991. Glenn Cella was interviewed March 31, 1989, and thereafter. David Long was interviewed by telephone on January 18, 1991; Curtis Jones was interviewed in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, on September 6, 1990. The Norris, Cochran, and Arkin essay is "History of the Nuclear Stockpile," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, August 1985. There have been many published accounts of Gerald Bull; a good one is "The Guns of Saddam," by William Scott Malone, David Halevy. and Sam Hemingway, Washington Post, Outlook Section, February 10, 1991. Israel's progress in laser-separated uranium was first reported by Robert Gillette in Science Magazine, March 22, 1974, "Uranium Enrichment: Rumors of Israeli Progress with Lasers." Nicholas Veliotes was first interviewed on June 20, 1989, in Washington. The Moshe Dayan quote about the end of the Third Temple can be found in the previously cited Time magazine article of April 12, 1976; it is also cited in Pry. 17. Nuclear Blackmail There have been scores of analyses of the Yom Kippur War, besides the memoirs of the participants. For differing points of view, see "Kissinger and the Yom Kippur War," by Edward N. Luttwak and Walter Laqueur, Commentary, September 1974; "Arab-Israeli Conflict: Implications of Mass Destruction Weapons," by Avigdor Haselkorn, Global Affairs, Winter 1988; "The Relevance and Irrelevance of Nuclear Options in Conventional Wars: The 1973 October War," by Yair Evron, Jerusalem Journal of International Relations, Vol. 7, Nos. 1-2, 1984; and "The Soviet Nuclear Threat Toward the Close of the Yom Kippur War," by Yona Bandmann and Yishai Cordova, Jerusalem journal of International Relations, Vol. 5, No. I, 1980. Also see the works cited above by Shai Feldman and Shlomo Aronson. Mohammed Heikal was interviewed by telephone from his office in Cairo on July 3, 1991. Henry Kissinger describes his meeting with Ambassador Dinitz on page 493 in Chapter 11 of Years of Upheaval (Little, Brown, Boston, 1982). Despite many calls to his office and to his former colleagues in the U.S. government, Kissinger would not be interviewed about the 1973 war. Hermann Eilts was interviewed on July 10, 1991, by telephone from Boston. James Schlesinger was interviewed on April 25, 1989, in Washington; William Colby was interviewed on January 10, 1991, also in Washington. The Kalb brothers published the gist of their material on the 1973 war from Kissinger (Little, Brown, Boston, 1974) in the New York Times Magazine, June 23, 1974; "Twenty Days in October." Patrick Parker was interviewed in Washington in early December 1990. Orwin Talbott was interviewed by telephone from Annapolis, Maryland, his retirement home, on December 10, 1990, and again on June 20, 1991. Bruce Williams was interviewed in Washington on November 28, 1990. Kissinger's request for a CIA report on the Israeli nuclear arsenal was first reported by Benjamin Welles in the Christian Science Monitor for December 6, 1973, "Kissinger Orders CIA Study of Israel's A-weapons Capability." Duckett's problems with the 1974 estimate have been widely reported; see "How Israel Got the Bomb," by John Fialka, Washington Monthly, January 1979. 18. Injustice John Fialka, then with the Washington Star, and David Burnham, then with the New York Times, have written extensively about the Zalman Shapiro case; see Burnham's "The Case of the Missing Uranium," Atlantic, April 1979. Both reporters, while raising repeated questions about Shapiro's actions, were careful to note that he had not been formally accused of any wrongdoing. For a different and more careless approach, see The Unnatural Alliance, by James Adams (Quartet Books, London, 1984), beginning at page 152 (Adams assumes that Shapiro was a Mossad asset). Dangerous Liaison doesn't do much better; see Chapter 4. "A Sword for Damocles." The documents and reports cited herein are available under the Freedom of Information Act; many thousands of them on NUMEC and its problems have been released. Zalman Shapiro was interviewed repeatedly by telephone from Pittsburgh, beginning on April 12, 1991. George Murphy was interviewed by telephone on May 30, 1989, and thereafter. James Lovett was interviewed on July 11, 1991. James Conran was interviewed on July 16, 1991. Victor Gilinsky was interviewed on June 12, 1989, in suburban Maryland, and thereafter by telephone. Cynthia Virostek was interviewed by telephone on July 17, 1991; she has assembled extensive files on NUMEC, and the author wishes to thank her for her generous help. Jody Powell's cited denial was published in the New York Times for October 26, 1977, "White House Discounts Allegations About Israeli Theft of Uranium," by Charles Mohr. Duckett's television appearance was on "Near Armageddon: The Spread of Nuvlear Weapons in the Middle East," an ABC News Closeup, April 27, 1981. Henry Myers first discussed NUMEC and Shapiro with the author on November 17, 1980, and many times thereafter. Peter Stockton's first conversation with the author about Shapiro took place on January 26, 1988. Congressional funding for the cleanup of NUMEC was reported by United Press International, October 28, 1990, "Congress OKs Money for Cleanup of Nuclear Site." The estimate of more than one hundred kilograms of recovered uranium ("inventory gain") was provided by a senior technical official of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission who reviewed Babcock & Wilcox inventory reports to the NRC; such reports are available under the Freedom of Information Act. 19. The Carter Malaise Ari Ben-Menashe initially contacted the author in August 1990 and was first interviewed in Cincinnati, Ohio, on April 11, 1991. He was subsequently interviewed in Washington and many more times by telephone. For a definitive account of the character of Menachem Begin, see The Life and Times of Menachem Begin, by Amos Perlmutter (Doubleday, Garden City, NY, 1987). Malcolm Toon was interviewed by telephone on May 20, 1991; his cable to Washington about the senatorial visit was made available under the Freedom of Information Act. The footnote about Vanunu and the senators' rebuff was reported in Triple Cross. George Rathjens was interviewed by telephone on March 25, 1989, and thereafter. Bergmann's speech in South Africa is cited in The Unnatural Alliance, among other places. Vorster's visit to Israel created a minor stir at the time: see "Vorster Visit to Israel Arouses Criticism," by Terence Smith, New York Times, April 18, 1976. The best account of the Carter administration's diplomacy on the 1977 Kalahari test was written by Murrey Marder and Don Oberdorfer of the Washington Post,. see their story as syndicated in the Philadelphia Inquirer for September 4, 1977. "How the Powers Stopped a Test," page I. The CIA's assessment of the attempted 1977 test was provided under the Freedom of Information Act to the Natural Resources Defense Council and made available to the press by the council on September 26, 1990. Harold Brown discussed the Israeli joint targeting request by telephone on April 26, 1991; he was previously interviewed in Washington on October 20, 1989. 20. An Israeli Test There have been some excellent critiques of the White House's attempt, through the Ruina panel, to wish away the Israeli-South African test. See "The September 22, 1979, Mystery Flash: Did South Africa Detonate a Nuclear Bomb?" unpublished study by the Washington Office on Africa Educational Fund, May 21, 1985. The study was written by Ronald Walters of Howard University. See also an unpublished study by Gary Milhollin (available through the Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control): "The Vela Sighting in 1979." Stephen Green, in Living by the Sword (Amana Books, Brattleboro, Vt., 1988), dissects the Ruina report beginning at page III. Gerald Oplinger was interviewed at his suburban Virginia home on January 9, 1991. Spurgeon Keeny was interviewed on March 24, 1989, in Washington and many times by telephone thereafter. Hooding Carter was interviewed by telephone on August 2, 1991. See Gary Sick (cited above) for details on the shah's visit to the United States. Jack Ruina was interviewed by telephone on August 2, 1991. John Scali was interviewed by telephone on August 6, 1991. Admiral Walters's bizarre explanation can be found in "Pretoria Suggests Cause of 'Explosion,'" by John F. Burns, New York Times, October 28, 1979. The cited P. W. Botha remark was on page 2 of the Rand Daily Mail for September 26, 1979: "SA Could Have Secret Weapon, Hints PW." The July 15, 1979, Ruina report was released by the Office of Science and Technology Policy in the White House and blandly entitled: "Ad Hoc Panel Report on the September 22 Event." Harold Agnew was interviewed by telephone on September 7, 1990. Louis Roddis was interviewed on May 7, 1991, and Donald Kerr was interviewed in Washington on February 13, 1991. Joseph Nye was briefly interviewed by telephone on January 2, 1991. 21. Israel's Nuclear Spy The only book-length study of the Pollard affair is Territory of Lies, by Wolf Blitzer (Harper & Row, New York, 1989), which professionally summarizes all of the known and published information about the case. Blitzer, however, accepts far too much of Pollard's account at face value. Many of the essential details of Pollard's early life come from Blitzer and the press accounts at the time. Samuel Lewis was interviewed about the White House meeting on February 22, 1991. Sharon's strategic vision behind the Israeli invasion of Lebanon -- and its folly -- is most clearly spelled out in Israel's Lebanon War, by Ze'ev Schiff and Ehud Ya'ari (Simon & Schuster/Touchstone, New York, 1984. Sharon's December 15, 1981, speech is available in abridged form from the Israeli embassy in Washington; it initially was issued as an embassy press bulletin. For more on the Stern Gang, see Wanted, by Mordechai Schreiber (Shengold Publishers, New York, 1984), beginning at page 142. 22. An Israeli Asset Peter Hounam was interviewed on July 30, 1991, by telephone from London, and thereafter. The cited Sunday Mirror article prominently featured a photograph of Vanunu next to an external photograph of the reactor at Dimona; the story itself, although vividly displayed, was buried deep inside the newspaper. Robert Watters was interviewed September 3, 1991, by telephone from Suva, Fiji, where he was on assignment as an electronics technician for the South Pacific Commission. Nicholas Davies (no relation to Nick Davies, a former reporter for the Independent) was interviewed by telephone from his home in London on July 26, 1991. Janet Fielding was interviewed by telephone from London on August 5, 1991. Peter Miller was interviewed by telephone from London on August 21 and 22, 1991, John Parker was interviewed in Washington on August 9, 1991, Tony Frost was interviewed by telephone from Newcastle, England, on August 6 and thereafter. The footnoted material about the Miller and Frost complaints against Maxwell came from the U.K. Press Gazette for April 29, 1991, "Sacked Mirror Man Finds Place in Sun," by Jean Morgan. Michael Malloy was interviewed by telephone on September 2, 1991, from the Passford House Hotel in Lymington, Hampshire, England, where he was on vacation.
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