Women and Spanish Fascism -- The Women's Section of the Falange 1934-1959, by Kathleen Richmond

WOMEN AND SPANISH FASCISM -- THE WOMEN'S SECTION OF THE FALANGE 1934-1959

Index

Note : Illustrations and figures are indicated in the index by the use of italics.

abortion 20
adultery 88
Agosti, Luis 24-5, 26
‘agrarian fascism’ 78
agricultural schools 44, 76, 86 ;
see also rural instructors;
rural regeneration programmes
agriculture 52, 77, 78 ;
see also rural instructors;
rural regeneration programmes
aid providers 12, 85 ;
see also welfare
Aladrén, Emilio 43
Alcántara, Julia 29, 30, 68-9, 118
Amado, José María:
‘Vía-Crucis’ 55-6
ANA (Asociación Nueva Andadura) 129, 130, 132, 134, 135
Anadón, Pilar 118
Argentina 75
Army 2-3, 5, 14
Arraiza Goñi, Josefina 103
Arrese, José Luis de 92, 93
Arriba 28, 77, 95
autarky 4, 11, 66, 76, 77, 78
‘Autarky and you’ 78
awards system 9, 40, 41
Azaña, Manuel 52
Azlor de Aragón, Pilar Luna 37

bankers 66
Barcelona women’s sports club 24
Basque Country 1
BDM (Bund Deutscher Mädel) 25-6
behaviour 9, 10, 57, 63, 111 ;
see also dress code
Benedictines 57, 65
Bilbao 69
birth control 18
birth rate 14, 18
black market (estraperlo) 66, 77, 153 n71
Blue Division 73-4, 103
Brazil 75
budget 11, 72, 73, 94 ;
see also funding
Burgos 55

Carlist women’s group 7
Carnicer, Ruiz 91
Catalonia 1, 75
Catholic Action (Acción Católica) 6, 54, 56, 60, 62, 63
Catholic Church 2-3, 5, 9, 14, 19, 28, 52, 57, 64, 87 ;
criticisms from 24, 27, 56, 61-2 ;
see also religion
Caudillo see Franco
charter of rights 90
Chávarri, Pepa 30
childbirth 25
childcare 18, 53 ;
programme 62
choirs and dances (coros y danzas) 27, 75, 76, 84, 109
Church and State 2-3, 5, 52-3 ;
see also Catholic Church;
religion
Civil Code 14, 88
civil unrest 71
Civil War 1, 3, 14, 66 ;
‘Crusade’ 14, 53
class 2, 3, 52, 58, 66, 110 ;
upper 54, 67 ;
working 1, 2, 14, 52, 67, 69, 78, 110
‘cleansing the nation’ 15
code of conduct see behaviour
Columbus, Christopher 38-9
‘complete work’ (labor total) 85
Conde, Marina 118
conferences 7, 9, 18, 38-9, 104, 107-8, 118 ;
first (Salamanca) 7, 35-6, 38, 39, 40 ;
eugenics 139 n25;
Hispano-American 87, 88, 89 ;
locations 38, 39 ;
writers’ 91
Conquest of the State 2, 38-9, 85
conservative agenda 53
conservatives 85-6 ;
see also rightwing groups
crafts 76
cultural diversity 91
culture 62, 89, 90, 110
Culture department (Cultura) 23

Daughters of Mary (Hijas de María) 6
Decree of Unification 3, 11, 56, 66, 67, 68, 72, 85
Delgado, José Luis 78
democratic representation 90
demonstrations 91
departments 39, 67-8 ;
see also individual departments
discrimination against women 88
dissidents 91
divorce law 5, 6, 14, 52
domestic programmes 22, 62, 78, 110 ;
schools (escuela de hogar) 15-17, 23, 28
domestic staff 88-9
domesticity 16-17, 21-3, 43, 53, 110
D’Ors, Eugenio 108
dress code 10, 26, 111 ;
see also behaviour

economy 2, 11, 12, 21, 78, 93, 94
education 10, 12, 52, 96, 97, 110 ;
higher 6, 9, 10, 90 ;
see also individual programmes;
teachers
Education department 79
Education, Ministry of 90
Eiroa, Viky 110
El Escorial rally 74
elite members (mandos) 4, 5, 8, 10, 12-13, 15, 16, 85, 86-7, 101-3 ;
lifestyle 15, 101, 102 ;
managerial skills 105, 107-8 ;
marriage 113-14 ;
mobility 106, 114 ;
religion 62, 63, 64 ;
salaries 106-7, 112 ;
self-worth 114-15 ;
social class 102-4, 105-8, 110-11, 116 ;
training 40, 53, 54, 110
Elizabeth II 91
Ellwood, Sheelagh 69, 71-2, 90
Elola, José Antonio 68
emblems 40, 41, 45, 51
Empire 38-9, 93
employers 66, 77, 78-9
equality of opportunity 98
eugenics 19, 20, 24, 139 n25
executions 66
exiles 75
expulsion of Jews 38

factory workers 79
Falange (Falange española) 1-4, 6, 34, 35, 52-3, 66-7, 73, 84-7, 107 ;
see also National Movement
Falange National Council 67
Falangist Revolution 2-3, 15, 21, 27, 33-4, 84-5, 112, 116, 120 ;
failure of 12-13, 95-7 ;
see also joseantoniano doctrine
family 15, 19-20 ;
see also women
fascism 1, 33-4 ;
‘agrarian’ 78 ;
‘generic’ 4, 33
Felski, Rita 109
feminism 6, 10, 15, 24
Ferdinand V 38, 40, 44
Fernández Cuesta, Raimundo 70, 91, 92
Fernández Miranda, Torcuato 90
First Congress of Justice and Law 88
First World War 5, 22
folklore 27, 42, 75
food shortages 66, 77
foreign influences (extranjerización) 19
foreign relations 75
Foreign Service 74-5, 89, 109
Fórmica, Mercedes 87-8, 108
Franco, Carmen 89
Franco, General Francisco 1, 3, 4, 8, 11, 14, 34, 84, 90
free market economy 93
Fronts and Hospitals department (Frentes y Hospitales) 68
Fundamental Laws 90, 92
funding 72, 77, 94, 98 ;
see also budget
fund-raising 35

Galarza, Colonel Valentín 71
Galindo, Beatriz 42
Galvarriato, María Dolores 118
gender 14-15, 53, 65, 115
‘generic fascism’ 4, 33
Genevois, Danièle Bussy 16
Germany 4, 14, 18, 19, 20, 25 ;
Frauenschaft 101 ;
women’s organizations 15, 25, 27-8, 32
Gibraltar 91
Girón de Velasco, José Antonio 71, 93
Golden Age 14, 19, 38, 39, 42
government appointments 71, 73, 93
Government Organization, Law of 92
Graham, Helen 110
Griffin, Roger 33-4, 102
Guzmán, Sevilla 78

handbooks 42 ;
see also textbooks
health 16, 18, 24, 59 ;
maternal and infant 18, 20, 25 ;
programmes 16, 18, 105, 106 ;
workers (Cuerpo de divulgación) 15, 20, 85 ;
see also welfare
Health Department 16
Hedilla, Manuel 67, 69
hierarchies 99 ;
political 39, 104-5, 112 ;
provincial 106 ;
service 39, 104-5, 107, 113, 144 n43;
specialist 104
Hitler, Adolf 25, 73
holiday home for working women 82
home versus work debate 21-2, 23, 24 ;
see also SF contradictions;
women and work
honours system 9, 40, 41
hunger 66, 77

icons 9, 41, 43, 45
identity 9, 33-4, 38, 41, 44-5, 64, 84, 107, 112
ideology 33-5, 38, 41, 45, 87, 120, 122, 124-5
industry 66, 76, 77
Infant and Maternal Health, Law of 20
infant mortality 14, 16, 18, 20 ;
see also health;
welfare
information gathering 77-8, 79-80
Information and Investigation department 79
informing 77, 79
Inquisition 38
Institute of Political Studies 88
interventionist methods 15, 20-1, 64, 78, 80, 84, 86
interview process 130-3, 134
invented traditions 38, 143 n33
Isabella I 13, 38, 39, 40-1, 42, 44
Italy 4, 14, 18, 20 ;
Fasci Femminile 101 ;
women’s organizations 15

JONS (Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista) 69, 70, 71, 103, 149 n13
Jordana Jorge 90, 91
joseantoniano doctrine 38, 45, 62, 64, 71, 75, 84, 85, 86, 97 ;
rejection of 94
journals 22-3 ;
see also individual titles
Juan Carlos I 92

La Mota 8, 9, 31, 41-4, 45, 46-8, 49-50, 61, 62, 93, 97, 106, 118
Labour Charter (Fuero del Trabajo) 20, 22, 76, 78, 97, 101
Labour, Ministry of 76
Laín Entralgo, Pedro 90
landowners 52, 66, 77, 78
Lannon, Frances 53, 58, 105
Las Navas 44, 61, 82-3, 109
Latin America 2, 87, 89, 93 ;
see also individual countries
Ledesma Ramos, Ramiro 69
Legal Advisory department 40
legal separation 88
legislation 13, 14, 20, 92 ;
employment 87-9 ;
labour 21-3 ;
religious 52 ;
welfare 20, 78 ;
on women’s issues 1, 6, 11, 88, 155 n15;
see also individual laws
legitimists 67, 69, 70-1
leisure activities 85
lesbianism 113
‘link members’ (enlaces) 21
literacy 5, 59, 86, 97 ;
schools (esculas de formación) 23, 28
local leaders (delegada local) 7, 102, 104

Madrid 15, 34, 67
Madrid Ladies’ Residence 9, 89, 90, 110
Madrid Lyceum 89
Madrid University 91
Maeztu, María de 110
Málaga school 8, 40, 103
male dominance 86, 97, 113
Marañón, Gregorio de 18
marriage 110, 113-14 ;
civil 52 ;
loans 20 ;
see also divorce law;
legal separation;
women
Martínez de Bedoya, Javier 70-1
Mass 58, 59, 61
maternity rights 137 n2;
see also health;
motherhood;
welfare
Medina 16, 108
Medina del Campo 8, 41, 42
Medina Circle 89
Medina, González de 78
membership 7, 33-5, 56, 64, 85, 95-7, 98, 102-3, 126-75
memorial crosses 55
Miguel, Amando de 89
missionaries of Falangism 61, 64 ;
see also Falangist Revolution
mobile classrooms see travelling schools
mobilization 2, 9, 85, 86
modernity 109, 113
modernization:
of National Movement 90-1, 92 ;
of SF 91-4, 97-8
modesty 26
monarchy 71-2, 90, 92
Montes, Eugenio 109
Mora, Marichu de la 108-9
Morales, Mercedes 118
Morales, Pilar 118
morality 15, 16, 61, 62, 85, 87, 97, 107
Moscardó, María 103
motherhood 18, 110 ;
see also maternity rights;
welfare
Muguruza, Pedro 42
musicians 89
myths 33-8

Nash, Mary 18
National Council 11
national identity 27, 52 ;
diversity 75
National Institute of Industry 76
National Movement (Movimiento Nacional) 1, 4, 9, 33, 45, 86, 98 ;
corruption 66, 77, 78, 79 ;
modernization 90-1, 92 ;
see also Falange;
joseantoniano doctrine
national office (La Nacional) 105-6, 111, 117
National School for Youth Instructors:
Isabella The Catholic (Las Navas) 44, 61, 82-3, 109
national schools 33, 44, 59, 64, 73, 84, 94, 109 ;
see also La Mota;
Las Navas
nationalization 2
‘New State’ 14, 20
non-believers 64
nurseries and crèches 22, 63
nursing 53, 54, 67-8, 74, 103

‘Olympiad’ (film) 25
Olympic Games 141 n77
oral sources 129-35
Organic Law of the Movement 92
orphanages 63
Ortega y Gasset, José 2
Otero, Mercedes 109

Palencia, Benjamín 43
Pamplona 34
Papal blessing 64
patriarchy 14, 15
patriotism 15, 18-19, 27, 74, 75
peninsular languages 75
Pereda, Rosario 103
Pérez de Urbel, Fray Justo 56-7, 59, 60, 61
personal devotions 59, 64
personal files 79
Physical Education department 25
physical education programmes 17, 24-7, 28, 56, 61, 110 ;
see also sport
political department hierarchy 39, 99, 104-5, 112
political education 59, 110
Political, Professional and Employment
Rights of the Woman, Law of 155 n15
Popular Front 18
populism 37, 102, 106, 111, 122
poverty 66, 77-8, 85
Prado Museum 76
prenuptial examinations 20
Preston, Paul 67
Primo de Rivera, José Antonio 1-3, 4-5, 6, 9, 11, 12 ;
cult 54-6 ;
death and conspiracy of silence 35-7 ;
myth 33-8 ;
removal of remains 94-5 ;
tomb 43 ;
writings 36-7, 55 ;
see also joseantoniano doctrine
Primo de Rivera, General Miguel 4, 5, 18
Primo de Rivera, Miguel 71, 95, 150 n30
Primo de Rivera, Pilar 4, 6, 7, 8-9, 11, 29, 80, 119, 124-5 ;
and Franco 67, 71-3 ;
leadership 33, 35, 36, 44, 45, 64 ;
memoirs 56, 94, 95 ;
and religion 57-8, 60, 61-2, 63-4
prisoners 15, 35
private space 41-2, 45 ;
see also La Mota
professional women 9, 12, 88, 97, 105, 106
professions for women 23
Programmatic Points 85, 92, 156 n33
programmes 5, 8, 16, 20, 23, 28, 61, 72, 81, 86, 94, 106, 110 ;
see also individual programmes
propaganda 3, 8, 11, 15
proselytization 63-4
provincial department hierarchy 106 ;
leaders (delegada provincial) 7, 8, 103, 104-5, 106
public image 35, 76, 110
publications 10, 16, 23, 42, 59, 92, 93 ;
see also individual titles

race 18, 75
rally, El Escorial 74
Reconquest of Spain 38-9
recruitment 8, 102-3 ;
see also membership
Redondo, Onésimo 17, 69, 103
regeneration 4, 8, 15, 18-19, 27, 109
relief programmes 7, 15 ;
see also health;
welfare
religion 2-3, 19, 53-4, 57, 58, 59, 60, 63, 65 ;
see also Benedictines;
Catholic Church
religious education 56, 57-8, 59, 60, 61, 64, 65
repression 66, 79, 86
Republican Constitution 5
Revista ‘Y’ 16, 23, 25, 35, 41, 74, 77, 78, 87, 108-9
Richards, Michael 15, 34
Ridruejo, Angela 35, 103
Ridruejo, Dionisio 35-6, 38, 67, 69, 86, 89-90, 108-9
Ridruejo, Tina 118
Riefenstahl, Leni 25
rightwing groups 2-3, 5, 6, 53
Rodríguez de Velasco, Pilar 118
Ruiz Giménez, Joaquín 90, 91, 92
rural instructors (instructoras rurales) 85, 96, 105
rural regeneration programmes 21, 76-8, 84
Russian Front 73-4

sacrifice 1, 2, 74, 84
Salamanca 7, 35, 67, 69 ;
Bishop of 3 ;
conference 7, 35-6, 38, 39, 40
Sanz Bachiller, Mercedes 17, 69-71
Sanz Orrio, Fermín 89
scholarships 89
Second Republic 1, 5, 10, 14, 18, 52 ;
opposition to 2, 3, 6, 53
Second Vatican Council 9, 58, 59, 62
Second World War 4, 28, 74
Segovia 35, 38, 103
self-sufficiency 4, 11, 66, 76, 77, 78
Senior National Training School José Antonio (Escuala Mayor de Mandos: José Antonia) (La Mota) 8, 9, 31, 41-4, 45, 46-8, 50-1, 61, 62, 93, 97, 106, 118
Serrano Suñer, Ramón 20, 67, 70-1
service 2, 84, 106
service department hierarchy 39, 99, 104-5, 107, 113, 144 n43
SEU 90-2, 108
Seville 67
sexual behaviour 59
SF 4-5, 6, 7-15, 35, 39-40, 64, 79, 85-7, 96-7, 120-1 ;
autonomy 123-4 ;
contradictions 15, 22-3, 106, 108, 115 ;
modernization 91-4, 97-8 ;
and the regime 66-7, 72-3 ;
working relationship with men 72-3, 107, 112-14 ;
see also individual entries
SF-SEU 90-2
single women 21-2, 113-14;
see also elite members
Social Aid (Auxilio Social) 17, 20, 22, 63, 69-71, 80
social control 4, 5, 25, 76, 79
social justice 2, 11-12, 59, 62, 106, 114, 115
social security scheme 88-9
social service programmes 17-18, 21, 28, 63, 70, 96, 103, 110
Solís Ruiz, José 93, 95
‘soppiness’ (ñoñería) 60
Sorel, Georges 45
sources:
oral 129-35;
written 129, 133
Spanish fascist party see Falange
Spanishness (hispanidad) 19
specialist departments (regiduría) 39, 61, 85, 96-7, 104, 109
‘spiritual value of money, The’ 78
sport:
clothing 26, 57, 61 ;
competitive 26, 44, 146 n26;
events 63 ;
and physical education programmes 17, 24-7, 28, 56, 61, 110;
professional 24, 27
St Teresa of Avila 13, 40-1, 44, 60
Stabilization Plan 4
starvation 66, 77
sterilization 19
Students’ Syndicate see SEU;
SF-SEU
‘style’ (estilo) 10, 42-3, 60, 87, 111-12, 116
Succession, Law of 11, 71-2, 86, 115
suicide 66
summer camps 28, 30, 44, 62
superstition 58
Syndical Organization 21, 76, 79, 80

teachers 44, 79, 105, 109
Teachers’ Service (Servicio Español del Magisterio) 79
territorial expansion 38-9
textbooks 10, 23, 59, 92, 93
Tovar, Antonio 90
Town and Country department (Hermandad de la Ciudad y el Campo) 21, 76, 88-9
Traditionalists 56, 151 n42;
women’s groups (margaritas) 68
Training department (Formación) 23
training programmes 10, 12, 53 ;
schools 8, 9, 39, 61, 97, 100, 103, 113
travelling schools 59, 63, 76, 113

universities 90-2, 137 n2
urban workplace 78-9
urbanization 97

Valladolid 7, 34, 67, 69, 103
Vallejo Nágera, Antonio 18
Vázquez de Parga, María Luisa 30
‘Vía-Crucis’ 55-6
Vigo 34
violence 2, 3, 6, 34, 66, 69
voting rights 5, 14

wages 66, 77, 78
war dead 40, 55
‘way of being’ (manera de ser) 40-1, 43, 45, 60, 76, 111
welfare 12, 15, 19, 20, 21, 35, 77, 96 ;
programmes 8, 11, 16, 18, 59, 69-70, 72, 80
women:
careers in SF 102, 106, 108, 112 ;
discrimination against 88 ;
graduates 105, 106 ;
in politics 90, 113 ;
professionals 9, 12, 88, 97, 105, 106 ;
rights 18, 62 ;
role 8-9, 14, 18, 20-2, 43, 53, 56-7, 62, 65 ;
single 21-2, 113-14 ;
and work 5, 9-11, 12, 14, 20-3, 76, 78, 82, 87-9, 96 ;
see also elite members
Women’s Lyceum Club (Lyceum Club Femenino) 9
Women’s Section (Sección Femenina) see SF
Women’s University Association (Asociacíon Universitaria Fememina) 9
working conditions 77, 78-9, 111, 112
writers 89, 108
written sources 129, 133

Youth Congress, Vienna 29
Youth Front 68-9, 85, 94
youth:
members (flechas) 41 ;
programmes 94, 97
Youth Wing 25, 68

Go to Next Page