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VOLTAIRE'S BASTARDS -- THE DICTATORSHIP OF REASON IN THE WEST |
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Notes CHAPTER ONE: IN WHICH THE NARRATOR POSITIONS HIMSELF I. Voltaire quotes: "Tous les genres sont bons, hors le genre ennuyeux." L'Enfant Prodigue, preface, 1736." Il faut avoir pour passion dominante l'amour du bien public." Le Siecle de Louis XIV." Dieu n'est pas pour les gros bataillons, mais pout ceux qui tirent le mieux." The Piccini Notebooks. 2. Ludwig Wiltgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1961), 74. This is the last line of the book, The original publication was in the Annalen tier Naturphilosophie. 1921: "Wovon man nicht sprechen kahn, daruber muss man schweigen." CHAPTER TWO: THE THEOLOGY OF POWER I. Voltaire, Dictionnaire Philosophique, vol. 6 (Paris: Librairie de Fortic, 1826), 307. Under the entry "Juste (du) et de L'injuste," "Il est evident a toute la terre qu'un bienfait est plus honnete qu'un outrage, que la douceur est preferable a l'emportement. Il ne s'agit donc que de nous servir de notre raison pour discerner les nuances de l'honnete et du deshonnete." 2. Denis Diderot. Encyclopedie, ed. Alain Pons (Paris: Flammarion, 1987), vol. 1. 35. Originally published in 18 volumes between 1751 and 1766. The quotation is from Pons's introduction. 3. Oliver Germain-Thomas. Retour a Benares (Paris: Albin Michel, 1986), 56." La cathedrale de mon pays n'est que le souvenir d'une culture alors qu'en ce temple tout parle. tout vibre, tout chante. tout vit." 4. The Political Testament of Cardinal Richelieu (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1961). 45. A long controversy has surrounded the veracity of this document. It isn't unreasonable to believe that it is real. In any case, what the endless research has shown is that the material contained reflects accurately both other documents unquestionably written by Richelieu, as well as his general beliefs. If the document were, therefore, actually by his eminence grise, Father Joseph, or by a supporter drawing on documents after Richelieu's death to create a false testament that could be used against the then government, it would nevertheless be an accurate expression of Richelieu's beliefs. In that sense it may be more true than many autobiographies in which public figures take the time to rewrite history and their own opinions on it in light of later events. In fact, Richelieu's Testament is a perfect illustration of the current confusion between fact and truth. It may not be fact but it is true. Had he clearly written it for publication, it would have been a fact, but undoubtedly untrue. 5. Ordonnance No. 45-2283, du 9 octobre 1945, "Expose des motifs," Michel Debre, La Reforme de fa Fonction Publique, 1945. 6. Fernand Braudel, interviewed by Louis-Bernard Robitaille in L'Actualite, February 1986: Question. "Vous ne croyez pas que l'humanite, en se modernisant, soit devenue moins barbare?" Braudel. "Vous n'avez pas connu la Deuxieme Guerre Mondiale! La difference c'est qu'on a moins d'excuse a etre barbare. Je crois que les hommes sont profondement barbares." CHAPTER THREE: THE RISE OF REASON 1. Cow example taken from Pierre Miguel, Les Guerres de Religion (Paris: Fayard, 1980), vol. 1, 53. 2, Isaiah Berlin, The Age of Enlightenment (Chicago: Mentor, 1956), 113. 3. Northrop Frye, Sheridan Baker, and George Perkins, eds. The Harper Handbook to Literature (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 168, 169. 4. Diderot, L'Encyclopedie, vol. 2, 220. "Machiavelisme, espece de politique detestable qu'on peut rendre en deux mots, par l'art de tyranniser." 5. See Ignatius Loyola, Autobiographie, trans. Alain Guillermou (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1962), 45. 6. Ibid., 142. Notary public is an approximate translation for "greffier publique," a function which no longer exists in France. 7. The first summary of the institute, August 1539. The Papal Bull "Regimini Militantis," September 27, 1540, para. 1. 8. See Candido de Delmases, Ignatius of Loyola, His Life and Work (St. Louis: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1985), 184-200. Quotation is from page 200. 9. Ibid. 10. Francis Bacon, First Book of Aphorisms, no. 12. 11. Michel Carmona, Richelieu (Paris: Fayard, 1983), 687. 12. Ibid., 393." Six vices majeurs: l'incapacite, la lachete, l'ambition, l'avarice. l'ingratitude, et, la fourberie." 13. The Political Testament of Cardinal Richelieu, 71. 14. Ibid., 84, 118. 15. Blaise Pascal, Pensees, chap. 23 (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1962). Texte etabli par Louis Lafuma, "TRANSITION," paragraph 200, 122." Toute notre dignite consiste donc en la pensee. C'est de la qu'i1 nous faut relever.... Travaillons done a bien penser: voila le principe de la morale." 16. Carmona, Richelieu, 35. 17. Giambattista Vico, La Methode des Etudes de Notre Temps (Paris: Grasset, 1981), 226-30. 18. Ibid. 19. Ibid., 203. 20. Corsica actually referred to itself as a kingdom, but Mary of the Immaculate Conception had the job of queen on a permanent basis and was not, of course, available for consultation. It was an elegant way to have a republic without shocking contemporary mores. 21. Joseph Foladare, Boswell's Paoli (Connecticut: Archon Books, 1979), 27. From a letter to Du Peyrou on 4 November 1764. 22. Ibid., 42. 23. Journal of the Rev. John Wesley, ed. Nehemiah Curnock (London: 1909- 16), vol. 5, 342. Entry dated October 1767. 24. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract (London: Penguin Classics, 1968), 96. Originally published as Du Contrat Social (1762), book 2, chap. 10. "Il est encore en Europe un pays capable de legislation, c'est l'Isle de Corse. La valeur et la constance avec laquelle ce brave peuple a su recouvrir et defendre sa liberte meriterait bien que quelque homme sage lui apprit a la conserver." 25. Foladare, Boswell's Paoli, 33. 26. Ibid., 160. 27. Voltaire, Philosophical Dictionary (London: Penguin Books, 1971), 327. Voltaire, Dictionnaire Philosophique (Paris: Librairie de Fortic, 1826), vol. 7, 252. "Celui qui brule de l'ambition d'etre edile, tribun, preteur, consul, dictateur, crie qu'il aime sa patrie, et il n'aime que lui-meme." Originally published 1764. 28. Foladare, Boswell's Paoli, 154. 29. International Herald Tribune, 7 May 1987. 30. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, 1790. 31. The Life and Selected Writings of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Modern Library, 1944), 51. Autobiography, 1821. 32. Ibid., 317. Paper, 28 April 1793. 33. Ibid., 373. Letter to Peter Carr, 19 August 1785. 34. Ibid., 576. Letter to Judge John Tyler, 28 June 1804. 35. Ibid., 448. Letter to E. Rutledge, 18 July 1788. 36. Ibid., 173. "The Character of George Washington." 37. Napoleon Bonaparte, Voix de Napoleon (Geneve: Edition du Milieu du Monde), 27. May 1795 conversation with Madame de Chastenay." En pareil cas il convient qu'une victoire complete soit a l'un des partis: dix mille par terre, d'un cote ou de l'autre. Autrement il faudra toujours recommencer." Second quote, June 1797: "Il leur faut de la gloire, ies satisfactions de la vanite." 38. Ibid., 30. 10 December 1797. "Lorsque le bonheur du peuple francais sera assis sur les meilleures lois organiques. l'Europe entiere deviendra libre." 39. Ibid., 35. 9 November 1791. "Cet etat de chose ne peut pas durer. Avant trois ans il nous menera au despotisme! Mais nous voulons la Republique assise sur les bases de l'egalite, de la morale, de la liberte civile et de la tolerance politique. Avec une bonne administration, tous les individus oublieront les factions dont on les a faits membres et il leur sera permis d'etre Francais!" 40. Ibid., 58, 21 February 1801. "Ceci est triste, general!" "Oui, comme la grandeur!" 41. Ibid., 193. To Narbonne in the Kremlin, 15 October 1812." Moi, j'aime surtout la tragedie, haute, sublime, comme l'a faite Corneille. Les grands hommes y sont plus vrais que dans l'histoire. On ne les y voit que dans les crises qu'ils developpent, dans les moments de decision supreme; et on n'est pas surcharge de tout ce preparatoire de details et de conjectures, que les historiens nous donne souvent a faux. C'est autant de gagne pour la gloire. Car, mon cher, il y a bien des miseres dans l'homme, des fluctuations, des doutes. Tout cela doit disparaitre dans le heros. C'est la statue monumentale, ou ne s'apercoivent plus les infirmites et les frissons de la chair. C'est Le Persee de Benvenuto Cellini, ce groupe correct et sublime, ou on ne soupconne guere, ma foi, la presence du plomb vil et des assiettes d'etain, que l'artiste en fureur avail jetes dans le moule bouillonnant, pour en faire sortir son demi-dieu." 42. Jefferson, The Life, 656, letter to Albert Gallatin, October 16, 1815; 683, letter to George Ticknor, November 25, 1817. 43. Ibid., letter to Count Dugnani, who had been Papal Nuncio in France in 1789, February 14, 1818, 684. 44. Leon Bloy, L'Ame de Napoleon (Paris: Mercure de France, 1912), 8. "Napoleon est inexplicable et, sans doute, le plus inexplicable des hommes, parce qu'il est, avant tout et surtout, le Prefigurant de CELUI qui doit venir et qui n'est peut-etre plus bien loin." 45. Oswald Spengler, The Decline of the West (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1926), 81. 46. Spengler, The Decline, 28. 47. Elizabeth Becker, When the War is Over (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986), 295. CHAPTER FOUR: THE RATIONAL COURTESAN 1. Diderot, L'Encyclopedie, vol. 1, 320. See Cour: "des productions artificielles de la perfection la plus recherchee." 2. Duc de Saint-Simon, Memoires, vol. 2, chap. 62. "C'etait de ces insectes de cour qu'on est toujours surpris d'y voir et d'y trouver partout, et dont le peu de consequence fait toute la consistance." 3. Baldesar Castiglione, The Book of the Courtier (New York: Doubleday, 1959), 299. First published in Italian in 1628. 4. Richard A. Gabriel, Military Incompetence: Why the American Military Doesn't Win (New York: Hill & Wang, 1985), 189. 5. Ibid. 6. Robert McNamara, Blundering into Disaster (New York: Pantheon, 1986), 24. 7. Charles de Gaulle, Discours et Messages, vol. 4, 1956-1965 (Paris: Plon, 1970), 85. Allocution prononcee a l'Ecole Militaire, 15 fevrier 1983, "Il est evident que, pour un pays, il n'y a plus d'independence imaginable s'il ne dispose pas d'un armement nucleaire, parce que, s'il n'en a pas, il est. force de s'en remettre a un autre, qui en a, de sa securite et, par consequent, de sa politique." 8. De Gaulle, Discours et Messages, vol. 5, 1966-1969, 18, Conference de presse tenue au Palais de l'Elysee, 21 fevrier 1966, "Dans ce cas l'Europe serait automatiquement impliquee dans la lutte lors meme qu'elle ne l'aurait pas voulu." 9. Gabriel, Military Incompetence, 3. 10. McNamara, Blundering into Disaster, 24, 26, 36. See also the interview given by McNamara to Time magazine, 11 February 1991, 62. Filled with touching modesty and real concerns for the well-being of man, at the same time its interpretation of past events is profoundly disturbing and reconfirms how McNamara came to do what he did when in power. For example, in agreeing that America had exaggerated the threat of the Cold War, he commented:
11. Nathaniel McKintterick, "The World Bank and McNamara's Legacy," The National Interest (Summer 1986). 12. Ibid. 13. Elio Gaspari, New York Times, November 2, 1983, Op. Ed. page. 14. Peter Jenkins, Mrs. Thatcher's Revolution (Harvard University Press, 1988), 197. 15. Mikhail Lermontov wrote "The Death of the Poet" on the day that Pushkin was provoked into a duel that he had no hope of winning and was killed. William Shawcross, Sideshow (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1979), 77. 16. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, trans. Maurice Cranston (London: Penguin Books), chap. 10, "The People: Continued," 95. See also the book Kissinger wrote in adulation of Clemens von Metternich, A World Restored: Europe after Napoleon (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1972). 17. Henry Kissinger, speech given at the Twenty-Eighth International Institute for Strategic Studies Conference, Kyoto, September 1986. 18. Seymour M. Hersh, Atlantic Monthly, May 1982. 19. Kissinger has denied this version of events. However, his taste for secrecy and his approach to the writing of the history in which he was involved leave a confused picture, as was demonstrated when William Shawcross's Sideshow: Kissinger, Nixon and the Destruction of Cambodia (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1979) was published while the first volume of Kissinger's memoirs, The White House Years (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), was in proofs. Kissinger recalled the proofs in order to revise his portrait of events. He also repeatedly denied having done this. The New York Times (October 31, 1979) refuted his denial: "Kissinger revised his book more than he reported." For an in-depth description of these events and Kissinger's changes see William Shawcross, "The literary Destruction of Henry Kissinger," Far Eastern Economic Review, January 2, 1981. On the issue of Iran, arms, economic modernization, oil prices and inflation there is a surprising change of position between volume one and volume two of Kissinger's memoirs. In The White House Years, he wrote a strong defence of his Iran policy: "Nor can it be said that the Shah's arms purchases diverted resources from economic development, the conventional criticism of arms sales, to developing countries. The Shah did both. Iran's economic growth was not slowed nor was its political cohesion affected by its defense spending" (1260). What Kissinger doesn't mention is that by the early 1970s, the Shah's oil income was no longer sufficient to maintain the same level of arms purchases and economic development. There were only two ways out: reduce expenditures or increase the oil price. But Kissinger points out that the Shah had become an essential element in both American strategy and weapons sales policy; what is more, oil remained his source of income: "The vacuum left by British withdrawal, now menaced by Soviet intrusion and radical momentum, would be filled by a local power friendly to us. Iraq would be discouraged from adventures against the Emirates in the lower Gulf, and against Jordan and Saudi Arabia. A strong Iran could help dampen India's temptations to conclude its conquest of Pakistan. And all of this was achievable without any American resources, since the Shah was willing to pay for the equipment out of his oil revenues" (1264). Enormous military resources were needed to fill these roles. And Kissinger confirmed that the Shah had to raise oil prices to maintain his economic policies: "[the Shah's] motive for the original price rise was not political but economic; unlike some other countries, he wanted the maximum revenues for the development of his country" (1262). This sudden unwillingness to mention that "maximum revenues" were also needed to finance the military- arms strategy that the American government required in the eastern Mediterranean is, to put it politely, disingenuous. Kissinger then goes on to say, in support of the Shah's oil price policy: "In fact, the real price of oil declined by 15% from 1973 to 1978." What he doesn't say is that this decline was the result of a growing international inflation whose origins lay in the United States. Kissinger's own description of the arms/oil price equation became part of a growing body of information that laid much of the responsibility at his door. In volume two of his memoirs -- Years of Upheaval (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982) -- he attempted to deny what he had already virtually admitted three years before: "Later on, it was sometimes claimed that the Nixon Administration's policy toward the Shah was influenced by our desire to increase his revenues so that he could buy additional military hardware. This is a reversal of the truth.... The most absurd example, perhaps, is the widely circulated claim that we were repeatedly warned of the danger of higher prices and turned it aside because Washington welcomed high oil revenues to finance Iranian rearmament.... [This argument was] demagogic ignorance" (857-858). In the related footnote he continues: "This was the sophomoric thesis of a segment of CBS television's news program 60 Minutes -- 'The Kissinger-Shah Connection?' -- broadcast on May 4, 1980, as well as of numerous columns by Jack Anderson in The Washington Post, e.g., December 5, 10, and 26, 1979. See also the even more spurious account in Jean-Jacques Servan-Schreiber, The World Challenge (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1981), p. 51-56, 65-70)" (Years of Upheaval, 1252). If this denial is accurate, then it is unfortunate that Kissinger omits any mention of the most spurious of all sources: himself, in The White House Years, 1260-1264. For a description of the astonishing growth in Iranian armaments and the resulting growth in U.S. arms industry dependence on Iran, see Anthony Sampson, The Arms Bazaar (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1977), 241-259. This chapter, "The Arming of the Shah," also describes Kissinger's role in encouraging and helping the Shah to buy the most advanced weaponry. 20. Accounts of Simon Reisman's character abound in books and in the press. For an early description see Christina McCall-Newman, Grits: An Intimate Portrait of the Liberal Party (Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, 1982), 219-225, which mentions Reisman's role in defeating a guaranteed annual income (223) and describes the Reisman actions that led to new conflict-of-interest rules (page 444, footnote 197, of Part 4). For a more recent short description see John Sawatsky, The Insiders: Government, Business and the Lobbyists (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1987), 184, For a description of Reisman in the FTA negotiations, see Linda McQuaig, The Quick and the Dead: Brian Mulroney, Big Business and the Seduction of Canada (Toronto: Viking, 1991), 1-7, 161-166. Reis:man's reputation for losing his temper or using outbursts as a negotiating technique has evolved over the years, At first, these tactics were seen by many as a tough and effective approach, Gradually, a body of opinion grew that what worked with subordinates and colleagues might actually backfire in international negotiations. Analysis of the FTA negotiations seems to be focusing gradually on Reisman's technique as one of the central factors in Canada's poor showing in the final treaty. This evolution in public perception can be seen in the three books mentioned above. McCall-Newman talks almost admiringly of "a man given to cussing, yelling, laughing and smoking fat cigars" who would shout publicly at his Assistant Deputy Minister: "Listen, Tommy, knock it off! When I need your fucking advice, I'll ask for it" (219). Sawatsky calls him "a loud, arrogant and obnoxious, but effective, deputy minister of finance" (184). McQuaig describes FTA negotiating sessions in which the "enraged Simon Reisman" was "not likely to control himself for long. After all, he could only take so much." McQuaig believes that the Americans consciously provoked Reisman in the belief that his "fierce tirade[s] venting his rage" distracted the Canadians from arguing key points. In checking the story surrounding the Canada-Europe bilateral negotiations in the Kennedy Round, I spoke with a number of people, including James Grandy (a brief telephone conversation) and Simon Reisman (a lengthy telephone conversation). Grandy, who took part in the Geneva session with Reisman, in general minimized the drama of what took place. He said, "We terminated the meeting." When asked whether that meant they had walked out, he eventually replied that they had "in effect walked out." He felt that the Europeans, rather than being shocked by Reisman's tactic, had "probably used it later as a stick to beat us with." My conversation with Reisman could be seen as a demonstration of his negotiating methods. At first he minimized the incident, perhaps reflecting the growing criticism of his methods in the early 1990s. "There was a negotiation. It didn't go very well.... We had a good debate.... They thought we were being pretty hard on them [however] stories get enriched with the passage of time." When I asked whether they had walked out, he at first said no, then: "Walk out? Yeh! Well, we failed to reach an agreement." When asked whether he had lost his temper: "There was no such thing as temper tantrums.... It was a tough negotiation.... They left and we left.... The rest is gossip which gets enriched in telling!" Our conversation began civilly. Gradually Reisman's voice rose and his tone became more vociferous. Eventually he was shouting about the Europeans who wanted Canada "to suck a hind teat"; about "some woman called Diebol or something" engaging in "irresponsible journalism ... misleading the Canadian people!" (a reference to Linda Diebel of the Toronto Star); and eventually, about the person he was talking to, "You're looking for sensationalism! You describe yourself as an historian! More likely you're a muckraker! You've taken more than enough of my time!" Whatever his reputation, it is nevertheless surprising to hear a leading public figure shout insults at someone he had never seen or met and said he did not know of; this despite the fact that he was simply being asked a series of information-oriented questions. If this was a sample of the methods he applied when negotiating with the Europeans during the Kennedy Round, it is difficult to imagine that Canada's position could not have been damaged. 21. See Time, 13 February 1989. 22. Ibid. CHAPTER FIVE: VOLTAIRE'S CHILDREN 1. Descriptions of this process abound; some personal accounts, some devotional, some analytical. Four modern examples are Malachi Martin, The Jesuits (New York: Linden Press, 1987), 192, David Mitchell, The Jesuits, A History (New York: Watts, 1981), F. E. Peters, Ours (New York: Marek, 1981), Les Jesuites: spiritualiti et activite (Paris: Editions Beauchesne, 1974). Loyola's definition of obedience, quoted above, from Martin, The Jesuits, 196-199. 2. London Business School, "The Master's Programme," course presentation brochure. Quote from the foreword by the Programme Directors, Elroy Dimson and David Targett. Undated, probably 1986, 3. 3. "Course Development and Research Profile," Harvard Business School, 1986. 4. "The Business of the Harvard Business School," published by the school, probably in 1985. 5. Ibid. 6. Frank B. Copley, Frederick W. Taylor, Father of Scientific Management, 2 vols. (Harper's, 1923), vol. 1, 422. 7. Judith A. Merkle, Management Ideology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 15. Merkle's book provides a complete analysis of the whole Scientific Management phenomenon. See also, for basic documents, Classics in Management, ed. Harwood F. Merrill (New York: American Management Association, 1970). 8. V. I. Lenin, Selected Works (London: Lawrence and Wishard, 1937), vol. 3, 332. Fora selection of Lenin's comments on Taylorism, see Merkle. 9. Merkle. Management Ideology, 291. 10. "The Business of the Harvard Business School." 11. For one personal description of the school, see Peter Cohen, The Gospel According to the Harvard Business School (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday. 1973). 12. Professor Abraham Zaleznik, "MBAs Learn Value of Home Life," New York Times, 16 October 1985, Living Section, 19. 13. British Business Schools, Report by The Rt. Hon. Lord Franks, British Institute of Management, London, 2 November 1963. 14. Graduate Management Admission Test (sometimes called the "Princeton Test"), see London Business School, "The Master's Programme," 5. 15. London Business School, Annual Report, 1984/85, and Harvard." Course Development." 16. John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, Catalogue, 1982-1983. 17. Debre, La Reforme. 18. Quoted in Jean-Michel Gaillard, Il Sera President, Mon Fils (Paris: Ramsay, 1987), 58. 19. Ibid., 23. 20. Ecole Nationale d'Administration, 1975, internal brochure number 36. 21. Le Monde, 16 Octobre 1986, 9. "Il faut donner a l'administration le sens de l'efficacite, du rendement et de la performance." 22. See materials published by ENA, for example, the annual Remarques a l'usage des candidats et des preparateurs prepared by the professors. Or for the sports exam, the document pamphlet, Ecole Nationale d'Administration condition d'acces et regime de scolarite, 1986. 23. Voltaire, Philosophical Dictionary, 149. Ibid., vol. 3, 246. "Un Parisien est tout surpris quand on lui dit que les Hottentots font couper a leurs enfants males un testicule. Les Hottentots sont peut-etre surpris que les Parisiens en gardent deux." 24. Report by Forum of Educational Organization Leaders. Released in Washington and reported in Herald Tribune, 3 June 1967. 25. Le Nouvel Observateur, 29 August 1986. "To read you must invent" is part of the report. 26. Aspen Institute, "Can the Humanities Improve Management Effectiveness?" seminar given by Warren Edward Baunach (1986). 27. Harold Nicholson, The Age of Reason (London: Panther, 1930), 169. 28. Gaillard, Il Sera President, 66. 29. Northrop Frye, "Acta Victoriana," installation address as president of Victoria College' Toronto (December 1959). 30. Jefferson, The Life. See, for example, his letters to Peter Carr, 19 August 1785 (373) and 10 August 1787 (428); to George Washington Lewis, 25 October 1825 (722); to James Madison, 17 February 1826 (726). 31. Ibid., letter to Henry Lee, 10 August 1824 (714). 32. Michael Beer, Bert Spector, Paul R. Lawrence, D. Quinn Mills, and Richard E. Walton, Managing Human Assets: The Groundbreaking Harvard Business School Program (New York: The Free Press, 1984). CHAPTER SIX: THE FLOWERING OF ARMAMENTS 1. An ever-growing collection of institutes provides statistics, in many cases annually, on the arms phenomenon. Each comes to the subject with its own purpose and therefore weights the analysis of the same "facts" on its own side. Nothing as crude as distortion appears. It simply is not necessary. The numbers are fantastic enough to be beyond exaggeration. And there is not a single "hard" number in the arms business. It is dominated by hidden or overt government subsidies, as well as prices set in an artificial and political market. The same plane may be sold for ten times its cost or one-tenth of its cost. Institutes may make selective use of whatever figures they can get hold of. No one can accuse them of lack of professionalism if their figures are incomplete, because there are no complete figures. Public statistics on armaments make the old nineteenth- century railway stock ventures seem honest in comparison. In fact, the institutes try their best in impossible circumstances. The annual Military Balance of the International Institute of Strategic Studies in London gives an accounting of the results of this business -- that is, of which armies have what arms. They are -- more or less -- sympathetic to what they see as the needs of Western defence. SIPRI (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute) publishes an annual accounting of arms sales. The Council of Economic Priorities in New York has attacked the subject in a number of reports which hold to the old liberal approach -- that arms are a waste of money and that statistics prove it. Dozens of books provide statistics. The earlier ones are particularly interesting because of their attempts to make sense of what was happening. A few useful titles are: John Stanley and Maurice Pearton. The International Trade in Arms (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies [IISS]. 1972). Jean-Franciis Dubos, Ventes d'Armes: Une Politique (Paris: Gallimard. 1974). SIPRI. The Arms Trade with the Third World (New York: Council on Economic Priorities. 1977). Steven Lydenberg. Weapons for the World (New York: Council on Economic Priorities. 1977). The Brookings Institution. Armed Forces as a Political Instrument (Washington, D.C.: 1978). Robert W. De Grasse. Jr., Military Expansion -- Economic Decline (New York: Council on Economic Priorities, 1983). William D. Hartung, The Economic Consequences of a Nuclear Freeze (New York: Council on Economic Priorities, 1984). Carol Evans. "Reappraising Third World Arms Production" in Survival (March 1986). James Adams, Engines of War (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1990). Martin Navias, Ballistic Missile Proliferation in the Third World (London: IISS/Brassey's 1990). 2. 1984 official figures of French capital goods exports: 3. On Dassault see John Ralston Saul, "The Evolution of Civil-Military Relations in France After the Algerian War," unpublished dissertation, Kings College, London, 1973, chap. 10, 439-456. For the statistics cited on this page and a more general analysis of the phenomenon, see: Walter Goldstein, "The Opportunity Costs of Acting as a Superpower: U.S. Military Strategy in the 1980's. "Journal of Peace Research. 18 (3) (1981), 248. Stephen Strauss, "Defence Dominates Research," Toronto Globe and Mail, 14 January 1987. Michael S. Serrill, "Boom into Bust," Time, 3 July 1989, 28-29. 4. For example, see New York Times, 12 February 1987, B13. Statement by Maurice N. Shuber, senior logistics officer in the Pentagon. 5. International Herald Tribune, 10 August 1988. 6. See Stanley and Pearton, The International Trade in Arms. 7. Charles de Gaulle, Memoirs de Guerre, vol. 1, L'Appel (Paris: Plon, 1954), 227." Les Etats-Unis apportent aux grandes affaires des sentiments elementaires et une politique compliquee." On McNamara, see a discussion of this approach in Stanley and Pearton, International Trade in Arms, 72-81. 8. Henry Kuss, speech to the American Ordnance Association, 20 October 1966. Quoted in Arms Sales and Foreign Policy, Staff study prepared for the use of the Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1967), 4. 9. The other two were: (1) The U.S.-U.K. refusal to furnish Paris with nuclear information in the late fifties, even though the French had been central to wartime work on nuclear fission. (France's independent force de frappe was a direct result.) (2) De Gaulle's discovery that he couldn't give orders to his own Mediterranean fleet because it had been "integrated" into the NATO command, which was permanently led by Americans. He withdrew the fleet almost immediately. 10. General Pierre Gallois, Paradoxes de la Paix (Paris: Presse du temps Present, 1967), 126. 11. Robert Gilpin, France in the Age of the Scientific State (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1968), 252. 12. De Gaulle, Discours, vol. 3, 81, speech at the University of Toulouse, February 14, 1959. "C'est a l'Etat qu'i1 appartient de determiner, dans le domaine de la Recherche, ce q'ui est le plus utile a l'interet publique et d'affecter a ces objectifs-la ce dont il dispose en fait de moyens et en fait d'hommes." 13. Bush quote: Toronto Globe and Mail, 14 January 1988. 14. Calculation agreed upon by most study groups. For example, The Arms Trade with the Third World (Stockholm: SIPRI, 1975), 12. 15. Quoted in Anthony Sampson, The Arms Bazaar (New York: Viking, 1977), 304. 16. Ibid., 114. The French title for the chief arms salesman is DMA or Delegue Ministeriel pour l'Armement. 17. Pierre Briancon, "Editorial: Puissance de Feu," Liberation, 7-8 March 1987, 3. "Quelques envols un peu romantiques ont pu faire regretter que dans telle ou telle partie du globe, la fameuse 'politique de la France' se limite a celle d'un marchand de canons.' C'est oublier un peu vite qu'on ne peut avoir d'autre politique que celle de sa puissance, cest-a-dire celle de ses canons: ceux que ron possede, et ceux que l'on vend." 18. Quoted in International Herald Tribune, 24 February 1987, Business Section. 19. New York Times, 9 March 1991. See account of Secretary of State Baker's trip to the Middle East. 20. "Marchands de canons cherchent terre d'accueil," Liberation, 7-8 March 1987, 2. Henri Conze quote: "L'avenir est tres incertain, mais les industriels ne doivent pas se laisser aller a la morosite. Les marches existent. Le probleme est de savoir quand les clients disposeront a nouveau de moyens financiers pour moderniser leur defense. Qui peut dire quel sera le prix du petrole dans un an?" 21. Harper's Magazine (January 1987), 50-51. 22. "Sweden's New Realities," International Herald Tribune, 3 June 1987, Special News Report, 7; on death of official see Toronto Globe and Mail, 17 January 1987. 23. The Arms Trade with the Third World, 12; Toronto Star, 18 July 1988, A16; Washington Post, 27 January 1991, CI. 24. Far Eastern Economic Review, 9 July 1987, 28. 25. The Arms Trade with the Third World, 43. 26. Toronto Globe and Mail, July 1991, B11. 27. Le Monde, 10 August 1988, 3; Washington Post, 27 January 1991, CI. 28. Far Eastern Economic Review, 9 July 1987, 3. 29. Annual Report to the Congress by the Secretary of Defense, Fiscal Year 1987 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1987), 293. 30. Michel Fourquet, Revue de la Defense Nationale (Paris: Ministere de la defense nationale, 1967), 756. General Fourquet was DMA from 1966 to 1968 and Chef d'Etat-Major des Armees from 1968 to 1971. "Admettre comme regle que ces industries doivent vivre de l'exportation." CHAPTER SEVEN: THE QUESTION OF KILLING 1. On military and civilian deaths, see, for example, John Gellner, Editor of Canadian Defense Quarterly, in Toronto Globe and Mail, 31 December 1980, 7. Figures such as these are always soft. A breakdown on war deaths from 1945 to 1989 has been done by William Eckhardt, research director of the Lentz Peace Research Institute. His figures are 13.3 million civilian deaths and 6.8 million military deaths. These figures do not include conflicts with less than one thousand deaths per year. In their attempt to be "hard," they also leave out a large part of the guerrilla and civilian-related casualties in more remote conflicts. The Burmese figures, for example, show 22,000 deaths. This is a conflict I have been following closely for a decade. A more accurate figure, given the disorder, violence and resulting poverty in the Shan States, might be 220,000. Another set of figures have been provided by Nicole Ball, National Security Archives, Washington, D.C., as reported in the Toronto Globe and Mail, 30 September 1991: 40 million deaths altogether in 125 wars or conflicts since 1945. 2. General F. Gamhiez and Colonel M. Suire, Histoire de la Premiere Guerre Mondale (Paris: Fayard, 1968), 216, provides the following figures on French soldiers killed in World War I: 1914 -- 300,000 in 4.5 months 3. Ibid., 124." Notre age sera celui des guerres plus ambitieuses et plus barbares que les autres." 4. Sun Tzu, The Art of War, trans. by Samuel B. Griffith; foreword by B. H. Liddell Hart (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), vi. 5. Sun Tzu, The Art of War, 63. 6. C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956), 171. 7. Pierre Lellouche, L'Avenir de la Guerre (Paris: Mazarine, 1985). 8. Ibid., 22. CHAPTER EIGHT: LEARNING HOW TO ORGANIZE DEATH 1. Sun Tzu, The Art of War, 79. 2. Ibid., 73, 73, 76-78, 101, 102, 134. 3. Ibid., 91. 4. Quoted in Michael Elliott-Bateman, Defeat in the East (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), 171. 5. Sir Basil Liddell Hart, A History of the First World War (London, 1970 ed.), 80. First published in 1930. 6. Sir Basil Liddell Hart, The Other Side of the Hill (London: Pan, 1978), 31. First published in 1948. 7. Charles de Gaulle, Le Fil de l'epee (Paris: 10/18, 1964). First published in 1932. 8. Comte de Guibert, Ecrits Militaires 1772-1790, preface et notes du General Menard (Paris: Editions Copernic, 1976), 192. "Si par hasard il s eleve dans une nation un bon general, la politique des ministres et les intrigues des courtisans ont soin de le tenir eloigne des troupes pendant la paix. On aime mieux confier ces troupes a des hommes mediocres, incapables de les former, mais passifs, dociles a toutes les volontes et a tous les systemes.... La guerre arrive, les malheurs seuls peuvent ramener le choix sur le general habile." 9. Gambiez and Suire, Histoire de la Premiere Guerre, 105. 10. Liddell Hart, The Other Side, 32. 11. Brian Bond, The Victorian Staff College (London: Methuen, 1972), 169. 12. Ibid., 165. For a comparison in greater detail, with sources, see 162-69. 13. Quoted in Le Commandant Charles Bugnet, En Ecoutant le Marechal Foch (Bernard Grasset, 1929), 39. Bugnet was one of Foch's aides. "La guerre a montre la necessite pour la direction d'avoir un but, un plan et une methode et d'en poursuivre l'application avec une active tenacite." He had begun by saying: "La guerre a montre la necessite pour reussir d'avoir un but, un plan et une methode." 14. Gambiez and Suire, Histoire de la Premiere Guerre, 330. 15. Bond, The Victorian Staff College, 279. Haig and Robertson quotes. 16. Ibid., 328. CHAPTER NINE: PERSISTENT CONTINUITY AT THE HEART OF POWER 1. Guardian Weekly, 13 January 1991, 8, Jean Edward Smith's review of Brute Force by John Ellis (New York: Viking, 1991). "In the last 18 months of the war, the Allies deployed 80,000 tanks to the Germans' 20,000; 1.1 million trucks to 70,000; 235,000 combat aircraft to 45,000." 2. Quoted by Liddell Hart in The Other Side of the Hill, 26. It should be noted that in 1989, John J. Mearsheimer published an attack on Liddell Hart, minimizing his role in the overall development of tank strategy. Mearsheimer's book, Liddell Hart and the Weight of History (London: Brassey's Defence Publishers, 1989, 5) was put into a proper context by Sir Michael Howard in a review published by The Spectator (25 February 1989, 28) and in a letter from Alistair Horne (The Spectator, 18 March 1989, 22). 3. Ibid., 470. 4. Elliott-Bateman, Defeat in the East, 67. See also Major General Eric Dorman-Smith's description of both the Wavell and the Auchinleck campaigns in Liddell Hart's Strategy, 2nd rev. ed. (New York: Meridian, 1991), appendix 1. This is a letter written by Dorman-Smith to Liddell Hart in October 1942; in other words, not long after the second campaign. See also the review of this book in The Spectator, 30 March 1991. 5. Ibid., 67. 6. The words of Admiral Sir Rowland Jerram, quoted in Philip Warner, Auchinleck, The Lonely Soldier (London: Buchanard Enright, 1981), 253. 7. Gavin Stamp in The Spectator, 24 October 1987, 14. 8. Quoted in Charles J. Rolo, Wingate Raiders (London: Harrap, 1944). 9. See The Chindit War, Shelford Bidwell (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1979), 38. 10. Sun Tzu, The Art of War, 101. 11. For example, Lellouche, L'Avenir de la Guerre, 13. He gives a figure of 160 for the Third World up to 1985. 12. William Manchester, American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur: 1880-1964 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1978), 575. 13. Sun Tzu, The Art of War, 85. 14. Richard Gabriel and Paul Savage, Crisis in Command (New York: Hill & Wang, 1978), Table II. Gabriel, Military Incompetence, 21. 15. Gabriel, Military Incompetence, 184. 16. Guilbert, Crises Militaires, 107. 17. Newsweek, 31 August 1987, 14. 18. Gabriel, Military Incompetence, 27. See Gabriel for a full analysis of these problems of high technology versus the winning of wars. 19. Guardian Weekly, 24 March 1991, 18. 20. International Herald Tribune, 22 April 1991, 5. 21. International Herald Tribune, 15 April 1991, 3. 22. R. Jeffrey Smith, "The Patriot Less than a Hero," Washington Post Service, April 1991. See also: William Safire, International Herald Tribune, 7 March 1991. "Israeli scientists and officers say 0 to 20% of Scud missile warheads were destroyed by Patriots," International Herald Tribune, 2-3 November 1991. New York Times, 9 January 1992; A8, re a 52-page report by Dr. Theodore A. Postal, a physicist and former Pentagon science adviser, now professor of national security policy at MIT: "an almost total failure to intercept quite primitive attacking missiles." 23. Gabriel, Military Incompetence, 14. 24. As witnessed by the author, who happened to be in the Pentagon that morning for a meeting unrelated to Iran. 25. Gabriel, Military Incompetence, 185. 26. For a description of this phenomenon, see Robert Merle, La Journee ne se leve pas pour nous (Paris: Plon, 1986). 27. Sun Tzu, The Art of War, 143. CHAPTER TEN: IN THE SERVICE OF THE GREATER SELF 1. The War of Jenkins' Ear began in 1739 after Robert Jenkins, master of a cargo ship, appeared before a committee of the British House of Commons with a box containing what he claimed was his own ear. This he said had been cut off by the Spanish coast guard in the West Indies, whom he said also pillaged his ship. The result was perhaps the first nation-state modern war in which artificially provoked national-racial outrage was used to advance raw commercial interests. Jingoism was an expression of blind patriotism invented in 1878 to encourage the sending of a British fleet into Turkish waters against the Russians. It came from a patriotic song called "By Jingo!" 2. See. for example, "Second Inaugural Address." Jefferson's A Life. 4 March 1805. 334. 3. Roger-Henri Guerrand. Les Lieux (Paris: Editions la Decouverte, 1986), 43. In addition, the succeeding description of and statistics on one of the most extraordinary modern revolutions -- the creation of sewage systems -- are drawn from this remarkable book. 4. Jefferson, The Life, letter to the writer Thomas Law. 13 June 1814. 636. 5. Ibid., Letter to Peter Carr from Paris.,10 August 1787, 429. 6. There are many sources for Haussmann's rebuilding of Paris. For example. J. M. and Brian Chapman, The Life and Times of Baron Haussmann (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 1957). Or William E. Echard, Historical Dictionary of the French Second Empire 1852-1887 (Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1985). Or Stuart L. Campbell. The Second Empire Revisited: a study in French Historiography (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1978). 7. Emile Zola, L'Argent (Paris: Bibliotheque-Charpentier 1893), 159. Le coeur serre, madame Caroline examinait la cour, un terrain ravage, que les ordures accumulees transformaient en un cloaque. On jetait tout la, il n'y avait ni fosse oi puisard, c'etait un fumier sans cesse accru, empoisonnant l'air.... D'un pied inquiet, elle cherchait a eviter les debris de legumes et les os, en promenait ses regards aux deux bords, sur les habitations, des sortes de tanieres sans nom, des rez-de-chaussees effondres a demi, masures en ruines consolidees avec les materiaux les plus heteroclites. Plusieurs etaient simplement couvertes de papier goudronne. Beaucoup n'avaient pas de porte, laissaient entrevoir des trous noir de cave, d'ou sortait une halaine nauseabonde de misere. Des families de huit et dix personnes s'entassaient dans ces chamiers, sans meme avoir un lit saovent, les hommes, les femmes, les enfants entas, se pourrissant les uns les autres, comme les fruits gates, livres des la petite enfance a l'instinctive luxure par la plus monstreuse des promiscuites. 8. Albert Speer joined the National Socialist party in 1931; that is, before Hitler won power. His first position of authority was as Hitler's preferred architect, then as armaments minister. In Grand Admiral Karl Donitz's short-lived 1945 government, he was reich minister of economy and production. His memoirs were called Inside the Third Reich (New York: Macmillan, 1970). An examination of Speer's attempt to defang the moral implications of his role can be found in Matthias Schmidt, Albert Speer: The End of a Myth, trans. Joachim Neugroschel (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1984). Originally published as Albert Speer: Das Ende eines Mythos (Munich: Bernard Scheiz Verlag). 9. Colin Campbell, Government Under Stress (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1983). Campbell looks at London, Ottawa and Washington. However, he pulls himself out of the reigning mythologies of the various systems only far enough to compare them; not to evaluate them. 10. Quoted in Theodore C. Sorensen, Kennedy (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), 283. 11. See Garry Wills, The Kennedy Imprisonment (Boston: Atlantic/Little, Brown, 1981), chap. 13, for a remarkable analysis of the Kennedy White House management style. 12. Jimmy Carter, Why Not the Best? (Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman Press, 1975). 13. The firings took place July 20-21, 1979. 14. Independent (London), 30 March 1990. Charles Powell, a civil servant and foreign affairs secretary to Mrs. Thatcher, lunched with Conrad Black, owner of the Daily Telegraph, to persuade him to give greater support to government. 15. Francois Mitterrand quoted in Catherine Nay, Le Noir et le Rouge (Paris: Grasset, 1984), 227. "Au niveau de l'homme politique, il n'y a qu'une ambition: gouverner." 16. Le Monde, 10 February 1989, 1. 17. Jefferson, The Life, letter to President George Washington, 23 May 1792, 513. 18. New York Times, 5 June 1989, 1. This article contains a breakdown of monies paid to senators and representatives by corporations and PACs. 19. See, for example, "Demand Grows for MPs in Business World," the Independent (London), 18 January 1989. 20. Anthony Sampson, The Changing Anatomy of Britain (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1981), 181. CHAPTER ELEVEN: THREE SHORT EXCURSIONS INTO THE UNREASONABLE 1. See, for example, Maurice F. Strong's address to the Harvard University Center for International Affairs, Cambridge, Mass., March 3, 1987. 2. For a full description, see Peter Ludlow, The Making of the European Monetary System (London: Butterworth Scientific, 1982). 3. Quotes on Robert Dole from Life magazine, September 1987, 63 and 64, in an article by George Gilder. 4. International Herald Tribunes report of 21 January 1989, 4, taken from the Washington Post Service. 5. Quoted in the New York Times, 12 January 1989, 8. 6. Quoted in the Independent (London), 18 January 1989. 7. On Reagan's visit to Japan see International Herald Tribune, 12 May 1989, news story as well as column by William Safire. The Japanese company was the Fujisankei Group. 8. London Times, 13 February 1989. CHAPTER TWELVE: THE ART OF THE SECRET 1. Sun Tzu, The Art of War, 144. Subsequent quotations, 147. 2. Desiderius Erasmus, De Civilitate Morum Puerilium, 1530. French version, 1544. Quoted in Guerrand, Les Lieux, 24. 3. Quoted in Harold Nicolson, The Age of Reason (London: Panther, 1930), 219. 4. Jefferson, The Life, three quotations: letter from Paris to James Madison, 20 December 1787, 436; Inauguration Address, 4 March 1801, 321; to the Secretary of the Treasury (Albert Gallatin), Washington, 1 April 1802, 566. On Alexander Hamilton and the Federalists, see the last chapter of James Thomas Flexner, The Young Hamilton (Boston: Little, Brown, 1978). 5. A standard text on Western approaches to toilet training and its results is Erik Erikson, Childhood and Society (London: Penguin, 1965). 6. Asa Briggs, The Longman Encyclopedia. (London: Longmans, 1989). 7. Security figure: International Herald Tribune, 30 May 1986. Secrets figure: International Herald Tribune, 19 April 1990; editorial from New York Times entitled "6,796,501 Secrets." The actual number was 6,796,501. 8. Times (London), 11 February 1989. 9. The book in question is Alfred W. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin in Southeast Asia. (New York: Harper & Row, 1972). 10. See, for example, Le Monde, 23 May 1986, article by Bernard Guetta. 11. Daily Telegraph, 12 May 1989. 12, Toronto Star, 21 June 1991. The Commissioner is John Grace. 13. First quote is from A. M. Rosenthal in New York Times, 11 June 1991, A15. Rosenthal was managing editor during the Pentagon Papers incident. His June 11 column summarized the events surrounding the whole incident. 14. See portrait of Robert Armstrong in chapter 4 of this book. 15. Re British SAS and Gibraltar, see the Independent, 27 January 1989, 1. The Thames Television program was "Death on the Rock." The report was prepared by a former Conservative Home Office minister, Lord Windelesham, and Richard Rampton, QC. 16. Diderot: "On doit exiger de moi que je cherche la verite, mais non que je la trouve." 17. Definitions, in order: Johnson's Pocket Dictionary of the English Language (London: Chiswick. 1826). E. Chambers. Cyclopaedia: or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (London. 1738), 2 vols. Dictionnaire Littre (Paris: Librairie Hachette. 1876): "Verite-Qualite par laquelle les choses apparaissent telles qu'elles sont." Noah Webster. An American Dictionary of the English Language (New York: S. Converse, 1828), 2 vols. Le Petit Robert (Paris: Robert): "Verite -- Connaissance conforme au reel. Ce a quoi l'esprit peut et doit donner son assentiment." 18. Robert Calvi was involved as a high-profile banker in the obscure triangle linking the Vatican Bank, the Mafia and the world of finance during the 1980s. Igor Gouzenko was a cipher clerk at the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa. He defected in 1945. The information he provided on North American-based Soviet spy rings gave some early impetus to the red scare campaign of Senator Joseph McCarthy -- which involved widespread, unsubstantiated attacks. CHAPTER THIRTEEN: THE SECRETIVE KNIGHT 1. Jacob Bronowski. Science and Human Values (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), 59. 2. Michael Polanyi, "The Republic of Science," Minerva vol. 1 no. 1., (Autumn 1962), 53-73. 3. J. Robert Oppenheimer. Science and the Common Understanding (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1953), 85. 4. Andre Malraux, quoted in Le Monde, 5 July 1968, from an interview given late in his life. 5. John Ruskin, Selections and Essays. "Time and Tide: The White-Thorn Blossom," (New York: Charles Scribner's, 1918), 365. Originally written 1871. 6. Bronowski, Science and Human Values, 7 and 19. 7. John Ruskin, Introduction to Modern Painters, ed. David Barrie (London: Andre Deutsch, 1987), XXXII. Quote from Barrie's introduction. 8. Much of the discussion of nuclear responsibility here and in the next section is drawn from an unpublished paper written by John Polanyi, dated February 1986, including quotes from Polanyi and from the Franck Report. Supplied by the author. 9. Oppenheimer, Science and the Common Understanding, 4. 10. Quoted in Le Canard Enchaine, 21 May 1987." L'incident est d'une gravite ... encore jamais recontree jusqu'ici sur les reacteurs a eau pressurisee .... Une defaillance supplementaire ... aurait donc conduit a une perte complete des alimentations electroniques de puissance, saturation hors dimensionnement.... La nonfermeture des vannes aurait constitue une voie de degenerescence supplementaire de l'incident vers une situation difficilement controlable." 11. Guardian, 6 July 1987, 5. 12. Matthew L. Wald, "Can Nuclear Power Be Rehabilitated?" New York Times, 31 March 1991. 13. Reported in International Herald Tribune, 5 October 1988. 14. Martin Amis, Einstein's Monsters (London: Jonathan Cape, 1987), 8 and 9. 15. Quotes from Guardian, 10 November 1989, 1 and 7. See also Financial Times, 11 November 1989, 6. 16. See, for example, Liberation, Paris, 24 avril 1991, 24: "Seule certitude: les centrales de demain seront sures ou ne seront pas. C'est du moins ce qu'affirment les industriels. Leur nouveau credo:- la 'surete passive.'" New York Times, 31 March 1991: "Can Nuclear Power Be Rehabilitated? The industry is trying to mend its image by curbing human errors." 17. A few references for these statements are: On salmonella: London Times, 7 December 1988: Marian Burros; ibid.. 10 February 1989, 1 and 12; ibid., 11 February 1989, 1 and 16; ibid., 13 February 1989, 10; ibid., 15 February 1989, 1 On hormones: Le Monde, October 1987, Philippe Lemaitre On pesticides: Toronto Star, 3 January 1988, Andrew Chetley; London Times, 20 June 1989, Michael McCarthy On fertilizers: Toronto Star, 28 August 1988, Lynda Hurst; International Herald Tribune, 9 August 1988, Steven Greenhouse; New York Times, 8 September 1989, 1, Keith Schneider On nuclear plants: International Herald Tribune, 5 October 1988, Keith Schneider CHAPTER FOURTEEN: OF PRINCES AND HEROES 1. There are many descriptions of the Calas casc. Gustave Lanson's classic biography, Voltaire, published in 1906, provides a clear description of the context and I have drawn heavily on it. An excellent English translation was published in 1960 (Voltaire trans, Robert Wagoner [New York: published by John Wiley and Sons]). 2. Oxford English Dictionary, s. v, 3rd ed., "justice." 3. J. J. Rousseau, The Social Contract, 99. 4. Learned Hand, The Spirit of Liberty: Papers and Addresses of Learned Hand (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952), 189. 5. Edmund Burke, 22 March 1775. 6. See Anthony Sampson's description of this debate in The Changing Anatomy of Britain, 159. 7. William Shawcross, "The Crips and the Bloods," The Spectator, 28 May 1988, 10. 8. Lord McCluskey, Low, Justice and Democracy, The Reith Lectures (London: Sweet and Maxwell, 1986), 2. 9. Quoted in Archibald Cox, "Storm Over the Supreme Court," Blumenthal Memorial Lecture, February 13, 1986, 21. 10. Montesquieu, De L'Esprit des Lois. Originally published in 1748." Quand je vais dans un pays, je n'examine pas s'il y a des bonnes lois, mais si on execute celles qui y sont, car il y a des bonnes lois partout." 11. McCluskey, Low, Justice and Democracy, 6. 12. "The Court's Pivot Man," Time, 6 July 1987, 8. 13. Supreme Court of the United Slates. Payne v. Tennessee. June 28, 1991. With Justice Marshall's resignation, seven out of nine justices will cast votes on the basis of ideology ranging from conservative to right-wing. See New York Times, 28 June 1991, A1, 10 and 11, for quotes from Justices Marshall, Stevens and Rehnquist. 14. Benjamin Hart, The Task of the Third Generation; Young Conservatives Look to the Future, forewords by Attorney General Edwin Meese and President Ronald Reagan (Washington, D.C.: Heritage Foundation/Regenery Gateway, 1987). 15. Chief Justice Brian Dickson, address to the annual meeting of the Canadian Bar Association, August 24, 1987. 16. Quoted in Time magazine, 6 July 1987, 32. 17. International Herald Tribune, 20 May 1987. 18. Financial Times, 12 February 1992. 19. Le Monde, 26 January 1989, 14. Reported by Maurice Peyrot. La Fontaine: "Selon que vous serez puissant ou miserable . .." 20. Jim Wolf, "CIA Says It Used BCCI Legally," Toronto Globe and Mail, August 1991, B11. 21. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971). 22. Thomas Mann, The Magic Mountain, trans. H. Lowe Porter (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1985), 513. First published in 1924. 23. Voix de Napoleon, 35. Speech given outside the Assembly on 18 Brumaire. "Qu'avez-vous fait de cette France que je vous avais laissee si brillante? Je vous ai laisse la paix et j'ai retrouve la guerre! Je vous ai laisse des victoires et j'ai retrouve des revers! Je vous ai laisse les millions d'Italie et j'ai retrouve les lois spoliatrices et la misere! Qu'avez-vous fait de cent mille Francais que je connaissais, mes compagnons de gloire? Ils sont mort! Cet etat de choses ne peut pas durer." 24. Mann, The Magic Mountain, 464. 25. The subject of endless biographies, Garibaldi and the other players in the Risorgimento, such as Cavour and Mazzini, have been clearly and dispassionately described in a series of books published over the last few decades by Denis Mack Smith, from which much of this information is drawn. CHAPTER FIFTEEN: THE HERO AND THE POLITICS OF IMMORTALITY 1. Erik Erikson, Young Man Luther (New York: Norton and Co., 1958), 75. 2. Schmidt, Albert Speer: The End of a Myth, 13-20. 3. Erikson, Luther, 109. 4. Jean Genet, Tire Thief's Journal (Harmondsworth: Penguin Modern Classics, 1967), 170. First published in French in 1949 as Journal du Voleur. 5. Jean Genet, Le Balcon (Lyon: Marc Barbezat, 1962), (37); le Juge: "Miroir qui me gloriie!" le General: "Proche de la mort ... ou je ne serai rien, mais refletee a l'infini dans ces miroirs que mon image" (55); le Chef de Police: "Non le cent millieme reflet du'un miroir qui se repele; je serai I'Unique, en que cent mille verlent se confonde" (117); and le Chef de Police: "Mais des que je me sentirai me multiplier infiniment, alors ... alors, cessent d'etre dur, j'irai pourrir dans les consciences" (219). CHAPTER SIXTEEN: THE HIJACKING OF CAPITALISM 1. Ross Johnson rose to prominence as chief executive officer of R. J. R. Nabisco from 1984 to 1988. He was ejected from the company after an attempt to take over ownership of the company. Following the publication of Barbarians at the Gate: The Fall of R. J. R. Nabisco (New York: Harper & Row, 1990), he became a symbol, depending on your point of view, of extravagant or unacceptable or irresponsible financial management. See, for example, Barbarians at the Gate: "He would come to be the very symbol of the business world's 'Roaring Eighties'" (11). He had become a friend of Brian Mulroney in Montreal in the 1970s and played a key role in organizing American business to push the U.S.-Canada trade agreement through Congress. His fleet of ten corporate planes was used to fly around a wide range of business and sports figures as well as Mulroney and his wife. Mrs. Mulroney also became known as a shopping partner of Mrs. Johnson, who had access to a far larger income. 2. Andre Malraux, La Condition Humaine (Paris: Folio/Gallimard, 1977), 230. Original published 1933." Le capitalisme moderne ... est beaucoup plus volonte d'organisation que de puissance." 3. Rosabeth Moss Kanter, professor at the Harvard Business School, began her career with studies on the community and cooperative approach to economics. She has gradually moved through a justified critique of the large corporations to a view of the "postentrepreneurial economy." The quotation is from Where Giants Learn to Dance: Mastering the Challenging Strategy, Management and Careers in the 1990s (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989), 52. This book ends with a section on "The Coming Demise of Bureaucracy and Hierarchy." In the context of this discussion, see a practical analysis in the humanist tradition: David Olive, Just Rewards: The Case for Ethical Reform in Business (Toronto: Penguin, 1987). See also Olive's program for reform of boards of directors -- "Board Games" in The Report on Business Magazine, Toronto Globe and Mail, September 1991. 4. Le Monde 18 February 1989, 31. 5. Far Eastern Economic Review, 27 August 1987, 17; and Newsweek, 31 August 1987, 27. 6. Michael Porter, professor at the Harvard Business School and author of Competition Strategy (1980), Competitive Advantage (1985) and The Competitive Advantage of Nations (1990; all New York: Free Press). Interesting comments on his methods can be seen in "Competitiveness, Strategic Management, Democracy and Justice: The Bad News," a preliminary paper for a three-year study on the phenomenon of "competitiveness" as perceived by Porter. The study was led by Professor Jon Alexander of Carlton University, Ottawa. Preliminary conclusions are that Porter's approach would lead to governments abandoning social and economic leadership; instead limiting themselves to creating an environment "in which markets are free to adjudicate their own interests." 7. See a description of the Boeing situation in International Herald Tribune, 2 February 1989, Business Section, 1, by Laura Parker, Washington Post Service. 8. James G. Rogers of Butler, Rogers and Baskett, quoted in New York Times, 6 September 1987, R15. 9. Maurice F. Strong, "Opportunities for Real Growth in an Interdependent World, 17 May 1987, speech to Banff Conference. 10. Strong, speaking at the Harvard University Center for International Affairs, Cambridge, Mass., 3 March 1987. 11. Dominic Lawson in Spectator, 17 June 1989, 9. 12. All three examples are drawn from Spectator, lead article of 18 May 1991, 5. 13. Figures for this paragraph drawn from International Herald Tribune, 3 November 1988, 15; Globe and Mail, 2 January 1989, B7; Bangkok Post, 24 January 1990; International Herald Tribune, 26 January 1990. 14. Merger figures from 100 Information Services, reported in Bangkok Post, 24 January 1990. A more accurate calculation of the percentage of corporate cash flow absorbed by interest payments would be based on the $2.2 trillion plus the $1.1 trillion. The financial institution figures do not, of course, include the banks' proper role as intermediaries receiving deposits. Guidance, in this area was received from economists at the Federal Reserve Bank (Robert Rewald and Sarah Holden). Guidance for British figures comes from the economists of The Bank of England. See also articles in: Newsweek, 7 November 1989; Time, 7 November, 1988; and Globe and Mail, 6 January, 1989. 15. Quoted in International Herald Tribune, 1 November 1988, 13. 16. Akio Moriia, with Edwin M. Reingold and Mitsuko Shirnomura, Made in Japan: Akio Morita and Sony (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1987). 17. These and the immediately succeeding statistics are from Peter Drucker, writing in Foreign Affairs. They were quoted by Maurice F. Strong in a lecture to the University of Victoria, British Columbia, on October 30, 1986. 18. Strong, "Opportunities for Real Growth." 19. Friedrich Nietzsche, Die Frohliche Wissenschaft, vol. 3, 16, "Moralitat ist Herden-Instinkt, in Einzelnen." 20. Sir Derek Alun-Jones, chairman of Ferranti International, quoted in the Times of London, 18 November 1989, 17. This article outlines the case. 21. Socialist International Congress, Resolution, Vancouver, November 1978. 22. Robert Engler, The Brotherhood of Oil (New York: New American library, 1977), 9. 23. Ibid., 51. 24. See The Brotherhood of Oil and Toronto Globe and Mail, March 14, 1984. 25. Diderot, Encyclopedie, vol. 2, 129: "FORTUNE (Morale): Les moyens de s'enrichir peuvent etre criminels en morale, quoique permis par les lois." CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: THE MIRACLE OF THE LOAVES 1. Jim Slater's fall can be followed in The Economist, 1 June 1974, 95; 24 August 1974, 81; 1 November 1975, 72; 15 November 1975, 89; 18 September 1976, 115; 15 October 1977, 121. The whole phenomenon is analysed in Charles Raw, Slater Walker (London: Andre Deutsch, 1977). 2. The Economist, 15 October 1977, 121. 3. The Snake originally took shape in 1972, in the wake of the first major monetary crisis of the 1970s. The Snake is an exchange-rate regime in which countries must keep their currencies within agreed upper and lower margins determined by a grid which fixes the relative values of all participants. The EMS began in 1979 and is gradually evolving towards a single European currency or something not too distant from that ideal. For a good description of the origins of the EMS, see Ludlow, The Making of the European Monetary System. 4. Quoted by Anthony Sampson in International Herald Tribune, 24 November 1982, 4. 5. See Diane Cohen, "Signals of a Looming Depression," Maclean's, 25 August 1988, 7; Anthony Bianco, "The Casino Society," Business Week, 16 September 1985, 78; Rowan Bosworth-Davies, Too Good to be True: How to Survive in the Casino Society (London: Bodley Head, 1987); John Taylor, Storming the Magic Kingdom (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987). 6. Bianco, ''The Casino Society," 79; and Cohen, "Signals." 7. Jefferson, The Life, letter to James Madison, from Paris, 16 September 1789. 8. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, trans. Talcott Parsons (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1958), originally published in German 1904-5. See pages 177, 182 and the footnote to page 64. 9. See Deuteronomy 23:20-21, Exodus 22:24, Leviticus 25:35-37, Ezekiel 18:13, the Psalmist 15:5. 10. Emile Zola, L'Argent (Paris: Bibliotheque Charpentier, 1893), 107. "A quai bon donner trente ans de sa vie, pour gagner un pauvre million, lorsque, en une heure, par une simple operation de Bourse, on peut le mettre dans sa poche? ... Le pis est qu'on se degoute du gain legitime, qu'on finit meme par perdre la notion de l'argent." 11. See Harold Lever and Christopher Hulme, Debt and Danger (Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1986). 12. As described in Anthony Storr. Solitude -- A Return to the Self (New York: Free Press, 1988). 13. For descriptions of the Gulf-Pickens fight see New York Times, 1 November 1983, D9; Financial Times, 25 November 1983, 18; ibid., 28 November 1983, 7, full-page Gulf ad; ibid., 31 December 1983; International Herald Tribune, 31 December 1983, Business Section, 1. 14. International Herald Tribune, 27 May 1987, Business Section, 1. 15. For description of Beatrice takeover see New York Times, Sunday, 6 September 1987, Business Section, 1. 16. Warren Buffett, quoted by David Hilzenrath, Sunday Star, 1 September 1991. Rudolph Giuliani, quoted in Gail Sheehy, "Heaven's Hit Man," Vanity Fair, August 1987. 17. Quoted in Bosworth-Davies, Too Good to Be True. 18. Carol Ascher, "Can't Anyone Tell Right from Wrong?" in Present Tense, January-February 1987, 6-13. 19. Ibid. 20. Times (London), 24 April 1987. 21. Dome Petroleum had vast holdings in the Canadian High Arctic. Discoveries in the late 1970s were used to sell successive share offerings around the world and created a spectacular price rise. In the 1980s the company's debt situation, combined with the continuing difficulties of commercially exploiting such inaccessible reserves, led to a spectacular collapse. 22. Phil Roosevelt, "The Secretive Ways of George Soros," International Herald Tribune, 13 April 1987, 9. 23. See Le Monde, 14 February 1989, 21; ibid., 1 March 1989; International Herald Tribune, 15 April 1991. 24. For example, see Le Monde, 15 February 1989. 25. Times (London), 17 July 1989. 26. Sidney Homer, A History of Interest Rates (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1972). CHAPTER EIGHTEEN: IMAGES OF IMMORTALITY OR THE VICTORY OF IDOLATRY 1. There is a remarkable discussion and a detailed description of the rise of the Church in Rome and its relationship to Roman beliefs, architecture and images, as well as of the arrival of Greek magic and idolatry, in Richard Krautheimer, Rome, Profile of a City 312-1308, (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1980). I have drawn heavily from it in the references to Christianity and Rome. 2. Saint Augustine, City of God (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1958), book 7, chap. 5, 136. 3. See H. Daniel-Rops, The Church in the Dark Ages (London: Dent, 1959), 556-62. 4. The Koran, trans. N. J. Dawood (Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1977), quoted from "The Merciful," 20. I have deleted the chorus -- "Which of your Lord's blessings do you deny?" -- after each verse. 5. King James Version, 15: 10; 18:4; 20:23. 6. The three most influential texts of the fifteenth-sixteenth-century transitional period were: Leon Battista Alberti, On Painting (1435), based on artistic changes in Florence; and Piero della Francesca; De Prospectiva pingendi (On Perspective in Painting) (1474-82) and De quinque corporibus regularibus (On the Five Regular Bodies) (after 1482). 7. Quoted in Claude Keisch, Grand Empire -- Virtue and Vice in the Napoleonic Empire (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1990), 71. 8. R. G. Collingwood, The Principles of Art (London: Oxford University Press, 1974), 6. Originally published in 1938. 9. Both Francis Bacon quotes are from The Spectator, 25 May 1985, 36, in an interview with Alistair Hicks. 10. Aldous Huxley, Brave New World (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963), 134. 11. Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (New York: New American Library, 1964), 269. 12. Ibid., 299. 13. See Le Point, Paris, 24-30 October 1988, 122. 14. Marshall McLuhan, Letters of Marshall McLuhan (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1987), 220. 15. See, for example, by Liberatore and Tamburini, RanXerox a New York, (Paris: Albin Michel, 1982). 16. Bilal, La Femme Piege (Paris: Dargand, 1986). 17. Le Nouvel Observateur, Paris, 29 August 1986. 18. Art Spiegelman, Maus (New York: Pantheon, 1986). 19. Quoted in Claude Marks, World Artists, 1950-1980 (New York: H.W. Wilson Publishers, 1984), see Lichtenstein entry. 20. Chester Brown, "Returning to the Way Things Are," in Yummy Fur, no. 9 (Toronto: Vortex Publishing, 1988). 21. J. M. Le Clezio, Le Proces-verbal (Paris: Folio, 1963), 128. "Je suis pris dans la bande dessinee de mon choix." CHAPTER NINETEEN: LIFE IN A BOX-SPECIALIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL 1. George Bernard Shaw, You Never Can Tell, The Bodley Head Bernard Shaw, vol. 1 (London: The Bodley Head, 1970), 671, 679, 685. Originally produced in 1899. 2. Mann, The Magic Mountain, 464. 3. John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism, Liberty, Representative Government (London: Everyman Library [Dent], 1964), 131-158; from On Liberty, chaps. iv and v. 4. For first usage of the following words see the Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., vol. xvi (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 152-153: Specialization: 1843, Mill, Logic, 270, "We have seen above in the words pagan and villain, remarkable examples of the specialization of the meaning of words; 1865, Mill, Comte, 94, "The increasing specialisation of all employments ... is not without inconveniences." Specialise: 1865, M. Pattison, Oxford Ess., 292, "The very fact that the new statue has restrained and specialised the subjects in the School of Literal Humaniores ..." Specialist: 1862, Herbert Spencer, First Princ. II. 1. 36. 130, "Even the most limited specialist would not describe as philosophical an essay which ..." 5. Charles Bonnet, Palingenesie philosophique ou Idees sur l'etat passe et l'etat futur des etres vivants, 17 partie, chap. 4. "Je suis un etre sentant et intelligent: il est dans la nature de tout etre sentant et intelligent de vouloir sentir ou exister agreablement, et vouloir c'est cela s'aimer soimeme." 6. Learned Hand, The Spirit of Liberty, 7. 7. McLuhan, Lettres, 29 August 1973, to Commissioner Nicholas Johnson, U.S. Federal Communications Commission. 8. Both Strong and Polk quotes are from conversations with the author in 1989. 9. Montesquieu, Lettres Persanes (Paris: Folio, 1981), 215, lettre LXXXIX, Usbeka a Ibben: "Tout homme est capable de faire du bien a un homme: mais c'est ressembler aux dieux que de contribuer au bonheur d'une societe entiere." Voltaire, "Poeme sur le desastre de Lisbonne": "Et vous composerez dans ce chaos fatal/Des malheurs de chaque etre un bonheur general!" 10. Jefferson, The Life, 711. Letter to Monsieur A. Coray, 31 October 1823. 11. "Happinees," TM Pending - "If you do it on your knees -- HAPPINEES -- the ultimate knee protector." Happinees Inc., P.O. Box 130, Station Z, Toronto, Canada M5N 2Z3. 12. Charles Murray quoted in Sunday Telegraph, 14 May 1989, 7. 13. Vanity Fair, August 1987, 134. 14. John F. Love, McDonald's -- Behind the Arches (New York: Bantam Press, 1986), 15. 15. The description of the Hyatt Regency Waikoloa is drawn from Time, 27 February 1989, 67. 16. Louis Harris, Inside America (New York: Random House, 1987). This includes the subsequent table. 17. See Walter Kenrick, The Secret Museum: Pornography in Modern Culture (New York: Viking, 1987). See also a review of this book by John Gross in the New York Times, 7 May 1987. 18. This pornography and its context are fully discussed in Steven Marcus, The Other Victorians: a Study of Sexuality and Pornography in mid-Nineteenth Century England (New York: Norton, 1985). 19. McLuhan, Letters. To Pierre Elliott Trudeau, 2 July 1975, 511. 20. American Vogue, June 1986, 236. Symposium, "American Men: What Do They Want?" quoted by Dr. Robert Goald, psychiatrist and professor at New York Medical College. 21. Conversation with the author in Belgrade, 22 October 1987. 22. Andre Malraux, quoted in Le Monfe, 5 July 1986. This was a publication of a 1975 interview with Ion Mihaileanu." Pour moi, le grand decalage, c'est que les terroristes que nous voyons a l'heure actuelle sont des personnages assez logiques alors que les terroristes que j'ai connus etaient assez pres des nihilistes russes, c'est-a-dire au fond assez metaphysiciens." 23. List from "Rebirth of a Notion," by Marni Jackson, Toronto magazine, September 1988. 24. International Herald Tribune, Octoher 1987. Italics added. CHAPTER TWENTY: THE STARS 1. Thomas Jefferson, The Life, Autobiography, 104. 2. Quoted in Jesse Kornbluth, "Faye Fights Back," Vanity Fair, August 1987,94. 3. C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite, 71. 4. Hand, The Spirit of Liberty, 38; from a speech called "The Preservation of Personality." 5. Mills, The Power Elite, 74. 6. The source of Goya's inspiration for this position has been endlessly debated. The art historian Jeanine Baticle attributes Goya's image to an engraving of the same scene by Miguel Bamborino. However, there is also The Vision of the Apocalypse by El Greco. It is in the Zuloaga Museum, Zumaya, and was painted in 1613. This was late in his life, when he had entered into his period of free-flowing, lyrical lunacy, which was not unlike the unchained self-absorbed vision of the modern painter. The main figure in this picture has his arms raised with the same ambiguous expression of joy and fear. 7. Eugene Delacroix, Le 28 Juillet 1830 -- La Liberti guidant le peuple. Painted in 1831. 8. Daily Mail, 1 July 1987, 1. 9. Times (London), 20 June 1989, 42. 10. Quoted by William R. McMurtry, Q. C., in a speech to the Canadian Bar Association, Toronto, 16 January 1987. 11. Ibid. 12. Lannick Group ad in Toronto Globe and Mail Report on Business Magazine, August 1989. 13. See Albert Goldman's biography The Lives of Lohn Lennon (New York: William Morrow, 1988). An example of the public reaction is the New York Times analysis on 12 September 1988, CIS, by Allan Kozinn. 14. Christian de la Maziere quoted in Paris-Match, 15 May 1987, 75. Dalida quote from same article: "Je sers un art mineur mais c'est quand meme une servitude qui implique d'aller jusqu'au bout de soi-meme." "Loin dans la nuit, elle me confiait sa fascination pour le neant." 15. New York Times, September 8, 1987, A24. 16. Joseph Roth, Confession of a Murderer, Told in One Night (New York: Overlook Press, 1985), 107. Original edition published in 1937. 17. New York Times Magazine, 11 June 1989, 28. 18. For a description of the Presley house, see "Amazing Graceland," Life magazine, September 1987, 44. 19. David Bowie quoted in Paris-Match, 10 April 1987, 37.
20. Paris-Match, 3 June 1988, 26.
21. Le Monde, 20 May 1987, report on a poll carried out by IPSOS between May 6 and 13, 1987, among fifteen- to twenty-five-year-olds. The question was: "Quelles sont les personalites dont le nom vous vient a l'esprit lorsque vous pensez aux actions efficaces d'aide au developpement?" Forbes list of forty highest-paid entertainers, 21 September 1987. Some of the figures are for 1991." Quelles sont les trois femmes celebres sur lesquelles vous vous retourneriez en les croisant dans la rue?" Le Monde, 13 mai 1987, special insert, "Image de Femmes." 22. The description of the sale is largely drawn from Dominick Dunne, "The Windsor Epilogue," Vanity Fair, August 1987, 100. 23. See, for example, the profile by Sally Bedell Smith in Vanity Fair, July 1991. 24. Paris-Match:
25. International Herald Tribune, 7 April 1987, 1. 26. Hebe Dorsey, "A Princely Birthday in Bavaria," International Herald Tribune, 10 June 1986, 10. 27. Details of the Grace Kelly-Rainier Grimaldi wedding taken from James Spada, Grace: The Secret Lives of a Princess (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1987). The designer of the wedding dress was Helen Rose. 28. Bangkok Post, 28 January 1990. 29. Mills, The Power Elite, 75. 30. See cover of Toronto magazine, December 1989. 31. Re Sarah Bernhardt, see Le Figaro, Journal des Debats, L'Intransigeant, Le Journal, 26-30 March 1923. Re Edith Piaf (13-15 October 1963) and Gerard Philipe (26-29 November 1959), see Le Monde, Le Figaro, and Combat. Re Yves Montand: All of page 1: Liberation, Quotidien de Paris, France-Soir; half of page 1: Figaro, Le Monde; weekly covers: Le Nouvel Observateur, L'Express, Evenements de Jeudi, VSD. 32. Ronald Reagan, Where's the Rest of Me? (1965), 51. 33. Toronto Globe and Mail, 6 May 1986, AB. 34. Trudeau's most controversial interview was on December 28, 1975. with Bruce Phillips and Carole Taylor on the CTV Network. CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE: THE FAITHFUL WITNESS 1. There is a general consensus that Homer never existed as a single poet. He wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey in somewhat the same sense that Matthew wrote a Gospel. 2. On the question of Revelations' debt to the Old Testament, see Northrop Frye, The Great Code: The Bible and Literature (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1982), in general and specifically pp. 73 and 35. Regarding the confusion between the Apostle John and John of Patmos, it remains widespread. For example, the subject index of the Oxford University Press edition of the King James Version places the reference to John (of Revelations) under the entry for the Apostle John. 3. For a discussion of the linguistic phenomenon of Francis in the context of his time, see Erich Auerbach, Mimesis, The Representation of Reality in Western Literature (New York: Doubleday, 1953), chap. 7. Original German 1946. 4. Three of the best known rector poets were Dinko Ranjina (1536-1607), Dominko Zlataric (1558-1613) and Ivan Gundulic (1589-1638), who wrote Dubrovnik's greatest epic poem, Osman. 5. Charles Baudelaire, Curiosites esthetiques: "Tout livre qui ne s'addresse pas a la majorite -- nombre et intelligence -- est un sot livre." 6. Moliere, La Critique de l'Ecole des Femmes, scene vi, Complete Works, vol. 2 (Paris: Flammarion, 1965), 132. "Je voudrais bien savoir si la grande regie de toutes les regles n'est pas de plaire . . ." 7. Richelieu, Testament, 41. 8. A whole literature exists on the Dreyfus affair. The finest single book is Jean- Denis Bredin, L'Affaire (Paris: Julliard, 1985). On Zola's involvement see part 3. 9. Ford Madox Ford, The English Novel (Manchester: Carcanet, 1983), 76. Original publication 1930. "En art il n'y a pas des regles, il n'y a que des exemples," Julien Gracq, quoted by Hubert Haddad in Julien Gracq (Paris: Le Castor Astral, 1986), 74. Balzac: "Ainsi va le monde litteraire. On n'y aime que ses inferieurs." Une fille d'Eve. Spengler, The Decline of the West, 32. 10. Remy de Gourmont: "Nous n'avons plus de principes et il n'y a plus de modeles; un ecrivain cree son esthetique en creant son oeuvre: nous en sommes reduits a faire appel a la sensation bien plus qu'au jugement," Les Pas sur le Sable, Le Livre des Masques, 2nd series. 11. Edmond and Jules de Goncourt: "Votre roman ... un roman ... la France se fiche pas mal des romans aujourd'hui, mes gaillards!" Journal, Memoires de la Vie Utteraire, vol. 1, 1851-1861 (Paris: Pasquelles Editeurs), 9. 12. This phrase belongs to someone else. The American writer Stanley Crouch will know who. 13. Introduction by Herbert Gorman (1928) to James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (New York: Modern Library, 1944). 14. Cyril Connolly, Enemies of Promise (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1938), 108. 15. Quoted in Bryan F. Griffin, "Panic Among the Philistines," Harpers (August 1981), 38. 16. Voltaire: "Tous les genres sont bans, hors le genre ennuyeux," L'Enfant Prodigue, preface. 17. See, for example, The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought, rev. ed., ed. Alan Bullock and Oliver Stallybrass (London: Fontana, 1988), 206. 18. Quoted in Le Monde, July 5, 1986, 19. "Ecoutez, est-ce qu'il existe serieusement du vecu quelque part? N'est-ce pas une espece de chimere incroyable? Qu'a-t-on considere comme le comble du vecu en France? Balzac. Mais Baudelaire ecrivait qu'il est le plus grand visionnaire de notre temps." 19. Quoted in New York Times profile of I. F. Stone, 22 January 1978. 20. R A. D. Ford, Doors, Words and Silence (Toronto: Mosaic Press, 1985). 21. T. S. Eliot, Collected Poems 1909-1962 (London: Faber and Faber, 1974), 218. "Four Quartets, Little Gidding," originally published 1942. CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO: THE VIRTUE OF DOUBT 1. For a discussion of Palladio. see Michelangelo Muraro. Civilisation des Villas Venitiennes (Paris: Editions Menges, 1987). Italian original 1986. See also various books and articles by James S. Ackerman, such as Palladio (Harmondsworth: Penguin. 1966). 2. Sir Michael Howard, "Process and Values in History" (Lecture given at Oxford University. 1989).
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